<p>Nepal’s community forestry initiatives have significantly enhanced forest restoration outcomes; however, nearly two-thirds of rural households continue to depend on forest resources, exerting sustained socio-ecological pressure on conservation. In Khaptad National Park (KNP), a mountainous and emerging tourism destination, this study analyzed land use and land cover (LULC) dynamics from 1991 to 2020 using multi-temporal Landsat imagery combined with household survey data. We employed intensive mountain-specific pre-processing—including topographic illumination normalization and DEM-based terrain shadow masking—followed by random forest classification to assess spatial changes in both core and buffer zones. Results show that agricultural land and grassland increased by 8.17 km² and 17.60 km², respectively, while forest and shrubland decreased by 18.63 km² and 10.48 km². In the buffer zone, agricultural land expanded from 79.00 km² in 1991 to 87.09 km² in 2020 (~ 0.28 km² yr⁻¹). These transitions coincided with rising mean temperature and precipitation trends. Survey findings indicate that although over half of households perceived a decline in agricultural productivity, many simultaneously reported greater dependence on agriculture and livestock, reflecting adaptive livelihood strategies amid environmental constraints. The combination of demographic pressures, tourism-related demand, and limited alternatives to biomass energy continues to drive forest conversion and resource extraction in the buffer zone. Collectively, these results underscore the urgent need for integrated land-use planning, adaptive forest management, and context-appropriate sustainable tourism strategies to balance local livelihood needs with long-term conservation goals and enhance socio-ecological resilience in mountain protected areas.</p>