The contributions of cytogenetics, genetics, and epigenetics to the stability of plants polyploidy

Usually polyploid plants have difficulties in stabilizing and adapting to new genomic and phenotypic environments, especially in the early stages of their first generation compared with diploid. This review, systematically describes different methods of the formation of plant polyploids and then their cytogenetic, genetic, and epigenetic contributions for polyploid formation, stability, and adoption. Stable polyploid plants exhibit remarkable cytogenetic characteristics including chromosome numbers, chromosomal behavior, rearrangement, and nuclear-cytoplasmic genomes interaction (NCI). Significant genetic and epigenetic characteristics change including gene expression, imprinting, paramutation, gene dosage effect, tissue-specific gene expression, methylation, and histone modification. Besides, two meiotic genes play an important role in the stability of wheat and Brassica. polyploids. All changes assist polyploid plants in surviving and adapting within their diploid parents. This review also highlights the remarkable phenotypic changes in polyploid stable plants compared to the diploid, which has a significant effect on their improvement and diversity. The polyploid technique has been used to develop new plant species with desirable traits for agricultural improvement and genetic variability.