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<p>This study empirically examines the effects of public expenditure, economic growth, and research investment on higher education enrollment in India and Saudi Arabia over 2000–2021. Employing a comparative panel framework, the analysis utilizes Cross-Sectionally Augmented Autoregressive Distributed Lag (CS-ARDL), Augmented Mean Group (AMG), and Common Correlated Effects Mean Group (CCEMG) estimators to capture short-run and long-run dynamics while accounting for cross-sectional dependence and heterogeneity. Total higher education enrollment (TE) serves as the dependent variable, with public expenditure on higher education (PEHE), budgetary expenditure on higher education (BEHE), and research and development (R&amp;D) expenditure as key explanatory variables. The empirical results indicate a stable long-run association among the variables. PEHE and R&amp;D expenditure exert positive and statistically significant effects on higher education enrollment, highlighting the role of fiscal commitment and innovation-driven investment in expanding tertiary education systems. In contrast, budgetary expenditure on higher education (BEHE) exhibits a negative long-term association with enrollment, suggesting that the impact of public spending depends on its composition, governance, and strategic allocation rather than its magnitude alone. Taken together, the findings contribute to the literature on higher education financing by providing comparative evidence from an emerging economy (India) and a resource-rich economy (Saudi Arabia). The study offers policy-relevant insights for improving the efficiency and effectiveness of public investment to support sustainable expansion and innovation-driven development in higher education systems.</p>

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Public expenditure, economic growth and research investment effects on higher education enrollment in India and Saudi Arabia using panel CS ARDL analysis

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  • 出版模式：

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  • 发表日期：

    2026年7月31日

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  • Abdul Moeed,
  • Waseem Alam,
  • Wasi Yazdani,
  • Mohd Hammad Naeem

摘要

This study empirically examines the effects of public expenditure, economic growth, and research investment on higher education enrollment in India and Saudi Arabia over 2000–2021. Employing a comparative panel framework, the analysis utilizes Cross-Sectionally Augmented Autoregressive Distributed Lag (CS-ARDL), Augmented Mean Group (AMG), and Common Correlated Effects Mean Group (CCEMG) estimators to capture short-run and long-run dynamics while accounting for cross-sectional dependence and heterogeneity. Total higher education enrollment (TE) serves as the dependent variable, with public expenditure on higher education (PEHE), budgetary expenditure on higher education (BEHE), and research and development (R&D) expenditure as key explanatory variables. The empirical results indicate a stable long-run association among the variables. PEHE and R&D expenditure exert positive and statistically significant effects on higher education enrollment, highlighting the role of fiscal commitment and innovation-driven investment in expanding tertiary education systems. In contrast, budgetary expenditure on higher education (BEHE) exhibits a negative long-term association with enrollment, suggesting that the impact of public spending depends on its composition, governance, and strategic allocation rather than its magnitude alone. Taken together, the findings contribute to the literature on higher education financing by providing comparative evidence from an emerging economy (India) and a resource-rich economy (Saudi Arabia). The study offers policy-relevant insights for improving the efficiency and effectiveness of public investment to support sustainable expansion and innovation-driven development in higher education systems.