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<p>Microsurgery, used across medical specialties like plastic surgery, requires extensive training due to its steep learning curve. Live animal models are the gold standard for simulation, but ethical and financial challenges have led to the development of alternative physical and virtual models. This study reviews non-living physical and virtual microsurgical simulation models to inform curriculum development. A search of PubMed and Google Scholar identified 42 relevant studies (2017–2024). These models are categorized into physical (non-living, non-animal, non-living animal, and non-living human) and virtual (non-immersive or immersive). While live animals remain the gold standard, these models provide valuable training opportunities. Despite challenges in realism, accessibility, and cost, integrating a variety of physical and virtual models into microsurgical education can enhance training by offering diverse experiences before operating in real-world settings.</p>

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The current state of microsurgical training models in the field of plastic surgery: a narrative review

  • 期刊论文

  • 出版模式：

    开放获取

  • 发表日期：

    2026年2月9日

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  • Taylor Penn,
  • Sahand Eftekari,
  • D’Andrea Donnelly,
  • Ellen C. Shaffrey,
  • Sarah Jung,
  • Aaron Dingle

摘要

Microsurgery, used across medical specialties like plastic surgery, requires extensive training due to its steep learning curve. Live animal models are the gold standard for simulation, but ethical and financial challenges have led to the development of alternative physical and virtual models. This study reviews non-living physical and virtual microsurgical simulation models to inform curriculum development. A search of PubMed and Google Scholar identified 42 relevant studies (2017–2024). These models are categorized into physical (non-living, non-animal, non-living animal, and non-living human) and virtual (non-immersive or immersive). While live animals remain the gold standard, these models provide valuable training opportunities. Despite challenges in realism, accessibility, and cost, integrating a variety of physical and virtual models into microsurgical education can enhance training by offering diverse experiences before operating in real-world settings.