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<p>The conventional chemical reduction of graphene oxide (GO) to reduced graphene oxide (rGO) employs harmful reducing agents, such as hydrazine and sodium borohydride. These chemicals create toxic byproducts, present serious environmental risks, and decrease biocompatibility in biomedical applications. This review outlines bioinspired reduction methods using plant extracts and biomolecules as cost-effective non-toxic alternatives, acting as reducing, stabilizing and capping agents at the same time. These environmentally benign reductants allow for efficient deoxygenation under mild aqueous conditions while simultaneously providing advantageous surface properties that improve colloidal stability and bio-interfacial properties. We systematically investigate the correlations between material structure, physicochemical properties and application performance in energy storage, environmental remediation, sensing and biomedical fields, and clarify the distinct mechanistic connections between the choice of reductants and functional performance. This review summarizes current research and critically discusses the environmental trade-offs associated with green synthesis, including water usage, energy intensive drying, purification needs and total resource consumption, all of which can significantly affect the sustainability of these processes. Moreover, we identify the absence of standardized regulatory and evaluative frameworks and emphasize the need for standardized assessment methods to facilitate the safe and scalable development of green-synthesized graphene products. This review provides a detailed framework for the development of sustainable graphene technologies through the comparison of the effectiveness of green synthesized rGO with conventionally reduced rGO, addressing key challenges such as reproducibility, scalability, life cycle sustainability, and biosafety assessment, thereby enabling the translation from laboratory research to economically viable and environmentally responsible industrial applications across various sectors.</p> Graphical abstract <p></p>

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A critical review of green chemistry driven approaches for the sustainable synthesis of graphene-based hybrid nanomaterials for energy, environmental, and biomedical applications

  • 期刊论文

  • 出版模式：

    开放获取

  • 发表日期：

    2026年7月31日

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  • Loganathan Kulandaivel,
  • Barani Kumar Duvaragan,
  • Yong Seok Hwang,
  • Narayanamoorthy Bhuvanendran,
  • Sang-Shin Lee

摘要

The conventional chemical reduction of graphene oxide (GO) to reduced graphene oxide (rGO) employs harmful reducing agents, such as hydrazine and sodium borohydride. These chemicals create toxic byproducts, present serious environmental risks, and decrease biocompatibility in biomedical applications. This review outlines bioinspired reduction methods using plant extracts and biomolecules as cost-effective non-toxic alternatives, acting as reducing, stabilizing and capping agents at the same time. These environmentally benign reductants allow for efficient deoxygenation under mild aqueous conditions while simultaneously providing advantageous surface properties that improve colloidal stability and bio-interfacial properties. We systematically investigate the correlations between material structure, physicochemical properties and application performance in energy storage, environmental remediation, sensing and biomedical fields, and clarify the distinct mechanistic connections between the choice of reductants and functional performance. This review summarizes current research and critically discusses the environmental trade-offs associated with green synthesis, including water usage, energy intensive drying, purification needs and total resource consumption, all of which can significantly affect the sustainability of these processes. Moreover, we identify the absence of standardized regulatory and evaluative frameworks and emphasize the need for standardized assessment methods to facilitate the safe and scalable development of green-synthesized graphene products. This review provides a detailed framework for the development of sustainable graphene technologies through the comparison of the effectiveness of green synthesized rGO with conventionally reduced rGO, addressing key challenges such as reproducibility, scalability, life cycle sustainability, and biosafety assessment, thereby enabling the translation from laboratory research to economically viable and environmentally responsible industrial applications across various sectors.

Graphical abstract