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<p>Limestone Calcined Clay Cement (LC3) has emerged as one of the most promising low-carbon alternatives to ordinary Portland cement (OPC). By replacing approximately 50% of clinker with calcined clay and limestone, LC3 can reduce CO₂ emissions by 30–40% while delivering comparable or superior mechanical properties and enhanced durability. This review comprehensively examines the material properties, hydration mechanisms, mechanical performance, durability characteristics, and sustainability benefits of LC3 concrete. The superior performance of LC3 stems from the synergistic interaction between reactive alumina from calcined clay and carbonates from limestone, which promotes the formation of carboaluminate phases (monocarboaluminate and hemicarboaluminate). These phases, together with additional C–(A)–S–H gel from pozzolanic reactions, significantly refine the pore structure, reduce permeability, and enhance chloride binding capacity. Consequently, LC3 exhibits competitive compressive strength (often matching or exceeding OPC at 28&#xa0;days and beyond), lower creep compliance, superior resistance to chloride ingress, sulfate attack, and alkali-silica reaction (ASR), making it particularly suitable for aggressive environments. Despite these advantages, challenges such as high superplasticizer demand, variability in low-grade clay quality, lack of standardized codes, and logistical issues in raw material supply remain. LC3 technology shows strong potential, especially in developing regions with abundant clay deposits, but further advances in tailored admixtures, optimized calcination processes, and long-term field validation are required for widespread adoption. This review highlights that LC3 represents a viable and scalable pathway toward decarbonizing the cement industry when supported by continued research in material optimization and industrial implementation.</p>

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Review of material properties performance and sustainability of LC3 concrete

  • 期刊论文

  • 出版模式：

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  • 发表日期：

    2026年7月18日

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  • Mutiu Adeolodun Akinpelu,
  • Faizah Opeyemi Lawal,
  • Mohammed Abdulkareem Adisa

摘要

Limestone Calcined Clay Cement (LC3) has emerged as one of the most promising low-carbon alternatives to ordinary Portland cement (OPC). By replacing approximately 50% of clinker with calcined clay and limestone, LC3 can reduce CO₂ emissions by 30–40% while delivering comparable or superior mechanical properties and enhanced durability. This review comprehensively examines the material properties, hydration mechanisms, mechanical performance, durability characteristics, and sustainability benefits of LC3 concrete. The superior performance of LC3 stems from the synergistic interaction between reactive alumina from calcined clay and carbonates from limestone, which promotes the formation of carboaluminate phases (monocarboaluminate and hemicarboaluminate). These phases, together with additional C–(A)–S–H gel from pozzolanic reactions, significantly refine the pore structure, reduce permeability, and enhance chloride binding capacity. Consequently, LC3 exhibits competitive compressive strength (often matching or exceeding OPC at 28 days and beyond), lower creep compliance, superior resistance to chloride ingress, sulfate attack, and alkali-silica reaction (ASR), making it particularly suitable for aggressive environments. Despite these advantages, challenges such as high superplasticizer demand, variability in low-grade clay quality, lack of standardized codes, and logistical issues in raw material supply remain. LC3 technology shows strong potential, especially in developing regions with abundant clay deposits, but further advances in tailored admixtures, optimized calcination processes, and long-term field validation are required for widespread adoption. This review highlights that LC3 represents a viable and scalable pathway toward decarbonizing the cement industry when supported by continued research in material optimization and industrial implementation.