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<p>Amid growing global concerns over climate change, energy security, and sustainable development, reducing energy intensity has become a critical policy priority for advanced economies. While numerous studies have examined the determinants of energy intensity in large developing or emerging economies, empirical evidence remains limited in an open and highly industrialized economy such as the Netherlands. To address this gap, the objective of this study is to empirically investigate the following research question: To what extent do per capita GDP, trade openness, manufacturing value added, and energy technology R&amp;D expenditure influence energy intensity in the Netherlands over the period 1990–2021? Using annual time-series data and the Autoregressive Distributed Lag (ARDL) bounds testing approach, the analysis reveals that per capita GDP, trade openness, manufacturing share, and energy R&amp;D investment all exert statistically significant negative effects on energy intensity in the long run. Short-run dynamics indicate a smooth adjustment process toward the long-run equilibrium, supported by a significant error correction term. Several robustness tests confirm the reliability of the findings. These results underscore that energy-intensity reduction in the Netherlands cannot rely on isolated measures. Instead, integrated policy frameworks that simultaneously promote sustainable economic growth, enhance trade-related technology transfer, support efficient manufacturing, and increase investment in clean energy R&amp;D are essential for achieving long-term energy efficiency and sustainability goals.</p>

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Economic and technological determinants of energy intensity dynamics in the Netherlands for sustainable energy use

  • 期刊论文

  • 出版模式：

    开放获取

  • 发表日期：

    2026年7月3日

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  • S. Arafat Ayon,
  • Mohammad Ridwan,
  • Md. Emran Hossain,
  • Samariddin Makhmudov,
  • Mohammad Haseeb,
  • Foday Joof

摘要

Amid growing global concerns over climate change, energy security, and sustainable development, reducing energy intensity has become a critical policy priority for advanced economies. While numerous studies have examined the determinants of energy intensity in large developing or emerging economies, empirical evidence remains limited in an open and highly industrialized economy such as the Netherlands. To address this gap, the objective of this study is to empirically investigate the following research question: To what extent do per capita GDP, trade openness, manufacturing value added, and energy technology R&D expenditure influence energy intensity in the Netherlands over the period 1990–2021? Using annual time-series data and the Autoregressive Distributed Lag (ARDL) bounds testing approach, the analysis reveals that per capita GDP, trade openness, manufacturing share, and energy R&D investment all exert statistically significant negative effects on energy intensity in the long run. Short-run dynamics indicate a smooth adjustment process toward the long-run equilibrium, supported by a significant error correction term. Several robustness tests confirm the reliability of the findings. These results underscore that energy-intensity reduction in the Netherlands cannot rely on isolated measures. Instead, integrated policy frameworks that simultaneously promote sustainable economic growth, enhance trade-related technology transfer, support efficient manufacturing, and increase investment in clean energy R&D are essential for achieving long-term energy efficiency and sustainability goals.