Rethinking household energy transition in Tanzania through the lens of poverty and social norms

Universal energy transitions are central to climate change mitigation and sustainable development, yet in much of the Global South, they remain uneven and incomplete. This study examines household energy transitions in southern Tanzania, focusing on how income poverty, social norms, and household perceptions of energy services shape fuel choices and transition pathways. Using a combined Multi-Level Perspective and Social Practice Theory framework, energy transition is conceptualized as a socially embedded and poverty-constrained process rather than a linear shift from traditional to modern fuels. The analysis draws on a predominantly quantitative mixed-methods design using survey data from 450 households in the Mtwara and Ruvuma regions, complemented by focus group discussions. The findings indicate that income poverty significantly constrains households’ ability to adopt modern energy sources, with limited and unstable financial liquidity emerging as a key determinant of fuel choice. Biomass use is significantly associated with affordability, incremental accessibility, and compatibility with local cooking practices, rather than household preference. In contrast, access to liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is significantly limited by high upfront costs, unreliable supply, and weak local distribution systems. The results further demonstrate that fuel stacking emerges as a statistically meaningful and adaptive response to economic uncertainty rather than a failure of transition. Social norms and community networks further significantly shape household energy practices. The study concludes that effective policies must address liquidity constraints, engage social norms, and align clean energy interventions with local realities.