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<p>This study aims to comprehensively address the impacts of trade, foreign direct investment, migration, and human development on environmental sustainability. The study examines the Turkish economy, a developing market economy, for the period 1990–2022. Per capita ecological footprint is used as an indicator of environmental sustainability. Within the framework of the Environmental Kuznets (EKC) Curve approach, the study aims to reveal the short-term and long-term relationships between indicators of economic and social globalization and environmental degradation. Fourier-based time series methods that consider structural breaks are used in the study. The long-term relationship between variables is analyzed using the Fourier-Engle-Granger cointegration test. Short-term and long-term coefficients are estimated using the FMOLS method. The CCR estimator is used to test the robustness of the obtained results. The Environmental Kuznets Curve approach is adopted to examine the nonlinear relationship between trade and environmental degradation. The analysis results show the existence of a long-term cointegration relationship between the variables. FMOLS findings revealed an inverted U-shaped relationship between trade and ecological footprint in both the short and long term. This result confirms the Environmental Kuznets Curve hypothesis in Türkiye. In the long term, foreign direct investment and human development have significant impacts on environmental sustainability. In the short term, migration was identified as a significant factor in terms of environmental policies. CCR results support the FMOLS findings. This study is one of the limited number of studies that address trade, investment, migration, and human development in Türkiye within the same framework. The use of ecological footprint as a comprehensive environmental indicator and the consideration of structural breaks using Fourier-based methods provide a methodological contribution to the literature. The findings offer important implications for policymakers in ensuring environmental sustainability and achieving sustainable development goals.</p>

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Revisiting the EKC for ecological footprint in Türkiye: the roles of trade, foreign direct investment, migration and human development

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2026年7月30日

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  • Mustafa Nai̇moğlu,
  • Sefa Özbek,
  • Serkan Şahi̇n

摘要

This study aims to comprehensively address the impacts of trade, foreign direct investment, migration, and human development on environmental sustainability. The study examines the Turkish economy, a developing market economy, for the period 1990–2022. Per capita ecological footprint is used as an indicator of environmental sustainability. Within the framework of the Environmental Kuznets (EKC) Curve approach, the study aims to reveal the short-term and long-term relationships between indicators of economic and social globalization and environmental degradation. Fourier-based time series methods that consider structural breaks are used in the study. The long-term relationship between variables is analyzed using the Fourier-Engle-Granger cointegration test. Short-term and long-term coefficients are estimated using the FMOLS method. The CCR estimator is used to test the robustness of the obtained results. The Environmental Kuznets Curve approach is adopted to examine the nonlinear relationship between trade and environmental degradation. The analysis results show the existence of a long-term cointegration relationship between the variables. FMOLS findings revealed an inverted U-shaped relationship between trade and ecological footprint in both the short and long term. This result confirms the Environmental Kuznets Curve hypothesis in Türkiye. In the long term, foreign direct investment and human development have significant impacts on environmental sustainability. In the short term, migration was identified as a significant factor in terms of environmental policies. CCR results support the FMOLS findings. This study is one of the limited number of studies that address trade, investment, migration, and human development in Türkiye within the same framework. The use of ecological footprint as a comprehensive environmental indicator and the consideration of structural breaks using Fourier-based methods provide a methodological contribution to the literature. The findings offer important implications for policymakers in ensuring environmental sustainability and achieving sustainable development goals.