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<p>Bone tissue engineering (BTE) has emerged as a promising strategy for repairing critical-sized bone defects, with scaffold design providing mechanical support while promoting cell adhesion, proliferation, and osteogenic differentiation. Although previous reviews have examined the biological performance of biochar in tissue engineering, including its cytocompatibility, bioactivity, and osteo-conductivity, as well as biochar composites in polymers and carbon nanomaterials, a systematic evaluation of how fabrication parameters affect the mechanical and structural properties of biochar-reinforced bone scaffolds remains is nearly absent. This review addresses this gap by critically examining the influence of fabrication conditions on scaffold performance for bone tissue engineering applications. Conventional polymeric, ceramic, and metallic scaffolds are evaluated alongside biochar-based composites, which offer tunable porosity, high surface area, and bioactive surface functionalities. Fabrication methods, including solvent casting, particulate leaching, freeze drying, compression molding, and additive manufacturing, are assessed for their effects on pore architecture, interconnectivity, and compressive strength. Comparisons with cancellous bone suggest that bio-derived carbon-based scaffolds can achieve comparable mechanical performance through appropriate processing. Evidence indicates that compaction pressure and binder composition are among the most influential factors affecting scaffold strength. The review identifies a critical lack of systematic studies linking pyrolysis temperature, particle size, binder composition, and compaction conditions to predictable mechanical outcomes. It also highlights challenges associated with scaffold optimization, modelling of irregular porous structures, and preclinical validation. Finally, translational barriers and regulatory considerations are discussed, providing an engineering roadmap for developing reproducible, mechanically reliable, and biologically active biochar-based scaffolds for future bone tissue engineering applications. Corresponding author: nurudeen.saidu@kwasu.edu.ng.</p>

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Biochar-Based Scaffolds for Bone Tissue Engineering: Emerging Sources, Fabrication Methods and Prospects for Clinical Translation

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2026年7月6日

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  • N. S. Saidu,
  • A. I. Ishola,
  • M. A. Samuel,
  • A. S. Adekunle,
  • M. O. Saibu,
  • M. Y. Kolawole,
  • K. O. Oladosu,
  • H. A. Ajimotokan

摘要

Bone tissue engineering (BTE) has emerged as a promising strategy for repairing critical-sized bone defects, with scaffold design providing mechanical support while promoting cell adhesion, proliferation, and osteogenic differentiation. Although previous reviews have examined the biological performance of biochar in tissue engineering, including its cytocompatibility, bioactivity, and osteo-conductivity, as well as biochar composites in polymers and carbon nanomaterials, a systematic evaluation of how fabrication parameters affect the mechanical and structural properties of biochar-reinforced bone scaffolds remains is nearly absent. This review addresses this gap by critically examining the influence of fabrication conditions on scaffold performance for bone tissue engineering applications. Conventional polymeric, ceramic, and metallic scaffolds are evaluated alongside biochar-based composites, which offer tunable porosity, high surface area, and bioactive surface functionalities. Fabrication methods, including solvent casting, particulate leaching, freeze drying, compression molding, and additive manufacturing, are assessed for their effects on pore architecture, interconnectivity, and compressive strength. Comparisons with cancellous bone suggest that bio-derived carbon-based scaffolds can achieve comparable mechanical performance through appropriate processing. Evidence indicates that compaction pressure and binder composition are among the most influential factors affecting scaffold strength. The review identifies a critical lack of systematic studies linking pyrolysis temperature, particle size, binder composition, and compaction conditions to predictable mechanical outcomes. It also highlights challenges associated with scaffold optimization, modelling of irregular porous structures, and preclinical validation. Finally, translational barriers and regulatory considerations are discussed, providing an engineering roadmap for developing reproducible, mechanically reliable, and biologically active biochar-based scaffolds for future bone tissue engineering applications. Corresponding author: nurudeen.saidu@kwasu.edu.ng.