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<p>Ammonia has long been a fundamental component of the fertilizer industry and is now emerging as a promising hydrogen carrier and carbon-free fuel. However, its toxic, corrosive, and explosive properties pose significant safety challenges during production, storage, and transportation, especially in extreme environments such as arctic cold, desert heat, and offshore marine conditions. This paper reviews the fundamental hazards associated with ammonia, including its toxicity, flammability, and environmental risks. It also analyzes critical failure mechanisms, such as stress corrosion cracking (SCC), hydrogen embrittlement, and low temperature fracture. Historical accidents and case studies are examined to highlight common vulnerabilities in ammonia facilities, pipelines, and shipping operations. The paper evaluates risk mitigation strategies, focusing on material selection, protective coatings, containment systems (such as double-wall tanks), fire protection tools, advanced gas detection technologies, and emergency response planning. Additionally, it discusses future perspectives as ammonia is increasingly promoted as a green energy carrier, emphasizing the urgent need for updated standards, digital twins, and predictive maintenance approaches. By integrating lessons from failure analysis with safety and risk management frameworks, this study provides guidance for ensuring the reliable and safe deployment of ammonia infrastructure in extreme environments.</p>

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Safety challenges and risk mitigation in ammonia production, storage, and transport under extreme environments

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2026年4月17日

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  • Karan Sotoodeh

摘要

Ammonia has long been a fundamental component of the fertilizer industry and is now emerging as a promising hydrogen carrier and carbon-free fuel. However, its toxic, corrosive, and explosive properties pose significant safety challenges during production, storage, and transportation, especially in extreme environments such as arctic cold, desert heat, and offshore marine conditions. This paper reviews the fundamental hazards associated with ammonia, including its toxicity, flammability, and environmental risks. It also analyzes critical failure mechanisms, such as stress corrosion cracking (SCC), hydrogen embrittlement, and low temperature fracture. Historical accidents and case studies are examined to highlight common vulnerabilities in ammonia facilities, pipelines, and shipping operations. The paper evaluates risk mitigation strategies, focusing on material selection, protective coatings, containment systems (such as double-wall tanks), fire protection tools, advanced gas detection technologies, and emergency response planning. Additionally, it discusses future perspectives as ammonia is increasingly promoted as a green energy carrier, emphasizing the urgent need for updated standards, digital twins, and predictive maintenance approaches. By integrating lessons from failure analysis with safety and risk management frameworks, this study provides guidance for ensuring the reliable and safe deployment of ammonia infrastructure in extreme environments.