Deprivation of safe drinking water and clean cooking fuel in India: longitudinal drivers of change

This paper investigates the factors influencing changes in deprivation of safe drinking water and clean cooking fuels in India. Deprivation index (DI) is constructed through fuzzy logic, encompassing both accessibility and reliability dimensions. First difference (FD) estimator is employed by regressing DI changes on a range of predictors, including time-variant and time-invariant variables. To ensure robustness of FD results, a fractional response panel model is also employed. The study finds a notable reduction in the mean deprivation index (DI), from 0.68 in 2004–05 to 0.63 in 2011–12, signifying progress in provisioning, albeit with persistent rural–urban disparities. Further, the non-linear nature of progress reveals risks of reversal due to poverty and vulnerability. Income significantly reduces deprivation, with a 10% increase lowering the DI by 0.162, while a 10% decline raises it by 0.090, showing an asymmetrical effect (p < 0.0079). Despite high income not ensuring a deprivation-free life, it plays a key role in reducing deprivation. The temporal instability of income's effect is confirmed by an F-statistic (p < 0.0004). The results also highlight that improvements in HDI reduce deprivation by 0.426, while expansions in the road network reduce deprivation by 0.0515 (p < 0.001), thus underscoring the importance of state-specific development. The study recommends prioritising infrastructural enhancements to ensure the reliability of amenity provision, specifically focusing on achieving a consistent water supply. Originality lies in the fuzzy set theory approach, quantifying deprivation as a matter of degree, incorporating both access and reliability aspects for a nuanced assessment.