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<p>Hydroxyapatite (HA) is a calcium phosphate bioceramic extensively used in biomedical applications due to its chemical similarity to natural bone and excellent bioactivity. Conventional sintering of HA typically requires temperatures above 1000&#xa0;°C, which often leads to phase decomposition, grain coarsening, and degradation of biological performance. To overcome these limitations, recent research has focused on true low-temperature densification routes operating at ≤ 400&#xa0;°C, aiming to preserve phase stability, nanoscale features, and functional bioactivity while reducing energy consumption. This review critically examines pressure-assisted and hydrothermal low-temperature densification techniques, including cold sintering process (CSP), hydrothermal hot pressing (HHP), hydrothermal reaction sintering (HRS), and emerging cool-SPS approaches. Emphasis is placed on densification mechanisms, processing windows, microstructural evolution, and resulting mechanical and biological properties. A comparative framework is established to highlight trade-offs between densification efficiency, mechanical performance, scalability, and biomedical suitability, rather than absolute ranking of techniques. The review provides a focused and application-oriented perspective to guide the selection of appropriate low-temperature densification strategies for next-generation hydroxyapatite-based biomedical implants and hybrid biomaterials.</p>

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Reviewing the most suitable low-temperature densification methods for hydroxyapatite bio-ceramic material

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2026年4月21日

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  • Hawraa Oday Abbas,
  • Zaid Kareem,
  • Zainab Jawad Kadhim,
  • N. A. Al-ali

摘要

Hydroxyapatite (HA) is a calcium phosphate bioceramic extensively used in biomedical applications due to its chemical similarity to natural bone and excellent bioactivity. Conventional sintering of HA typically requires temperatures above 1000 °C, which often leads to phase decomposition, grain coarsening, and degradation of biological performance. To overcome these limitations, recent research has focused on true low-temperature densification routes operating at ≤ 400 °C, aiming to preserve phase stability, nanoscale features, and functional bioactivity while reducing energy consumption. This review critically examines pressure-assisted and hydrothermal low-temperature densification techniques, including cold sintering process (CSP), hydrothermal hot pressing (HHP), hydrothermal reaction sintering (HRS), and emerging cool-SPS approaches. Emphasis is placed on densification mechanisms, processing windows, microstructural evolution, and resulting mechanical and biological properties. A comparative framework is established to highlight trade-offs between densification efficiency, mechanical performance, scalability, and biomedical suitability, rather than absolute ranking of techniques. The review provides a focused and application-oriented perspective to guide the selection of appropriate low-temperature densification strategies for next-generation hydroxyapatite-based biomedical implants and hybrid biomaterials.