Convergence in gender inequality and gender development: a panel data evidence

The paper examined convergence process and outcomes in gender indicators (gender inequality and development indexes) for two global panels of 106 and 75 economies over the 1990–2013 period. The five convergence dimensions were considered: beta, sigma, gamma, stochastic, and club convergence. The statistical methods included cross-sectional regression, kernel density plots, Markov transition probability matrices, panel unit root tests, the rank correlation, Phillips–Sul club convergence algorithm, as well as conditioning regression and panel quantile model. While there was reduction in gender inequality and improvement in gender development across the panel, the convergence in most dimensions was observed only for the gender development. Formation of the clubs and the absence of convergence to a single level were common for gender inequality. The change in the gender inequality and development ranks and mobility across classes of economies was small for both indicators, with the lowest upward (downward) change in gender development (inequality) observed in the least developed economies. The key role of economic variables (female labour force participation and labour productivity) in club formation and countries’ polarisation in gender development and inequality was indicated. Overall, the findings indicate that improvement in gender development indicators did not translate into higher gender equality, thereby suggesting corrective policy action at national and international levels.