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<p>Springs in the Indian Himalayas are vital freshwater sources, with sensitive hydrogeology and declining discharge highlighting the need for identifying potential zones for sustainable management. Conventional groundwater potential assessment methods often inadequately represent the spatial distribution and sustainability of springs. To address this, the study compares traditional Groundwater Potential Zone (GWPZ) mapping with a mountain-specific Spring Water Potential Zone (SWPZ) framework in the Bhilangana Block, Lesser Himalaya, Uttarakhand, India. Both frameworks were developed using GIS-based AHP: the GWPZ used standard hydrogeological and terrain parameters, while the SWPZ incorporated micro-topographic and ecological controls on spring discharge, including slope aspect, terrain curvature, and NDVI-derived vegetation. Each model classified the area into five potential zones, very low to very high for direct spatial comparison. The groundwater-based model delineated 12.79%, 26.71%, 25.96%, 22.95%, and 11.59% of the study area under very low to very high potential zones, respectively. In comparison, the spring-focused model allocated 13.33%, 27.74%, 27.30%, 22.28%, and 9.34% of the area to the corresponding classes, reflecting a refined spatial distribution influenced by local terrain and ecohydrological conditions. Model validation using 123 field-verified spring locations and Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) analysis produced Area Under the Curve (AUC) values of 0.692 for the groundwater-based model and 0.731 for the spring-specific framework. Notably, the spring-focused approach identified twelve additional springs within high and very high potential zones. Although the improvement in predictive performance is modest, Model performance was further assessed using bootstrap-based statistical comparison of spring-wise prediction scores. The SWPZ framework showed a statistically significant but modest improvement over the conventional GWPZ approach, demonstrating the benefit of integrating micro-topographic and ecohydrological variables for predicting spring emergence in mountainous regions. The proposed framework offers a robust and transferable basis for springshed delineation and sustainable spring water management across the Himalayan region and similar mountain environments.</p> Graphical abstract <p></p> <p>The graphical abstract illustrates the methodological framework and comparative analysis between a conventional Groundwater Potential Zone (GWPZ) mapping approach and a specialized Spring Water Potential Zone (SWPZ) model in the Bhilangana block of the Lesser Himalaya, Uttarakhand, India. The left panel visualizes the comprehensive geospatial database comprising eleven thematic layers, including Lithology, Slope, Lineament Density, and critical ecohydrological factors like NDVI and Curvature synthesized using a GIS-based Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP). The central workflow depicts the integration of remote sensing data and weighted overlay analysis to prioritize micro-topographic controls governing spring emergence. The primary output is the SWPZ map (right panel), categorizing the region into five potential classes ranging from very low to very high. The validation section, featuring a Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) curve, demonstrates the superior accuracy of the spring-specific model (AUC = 0.731) over the conventional groundwater model (AUC = 0.692), validated against 123 field-verified spring locations. Notably, the spring-focused approach identifies distinct high-potential zones compared to the conventional model. The visual inclusion of community members utilizing a spring source underscores the study’s societal relevance. By providing a statistically improved delineation of potential zones, this framework offers a robust scientific basis for targeted springshed management and sustainable water security in structurally complex mountain ecosystems.</p>

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Mapping Spring Emergence Zones in the Lesser Himalaya, India Using a GIS-Based Multi-Criteria Decision Approach

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2026年4月22日

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  • Ayush Kukreti,
  • S S Rawat,
  • D S Malik,
  • Tanveer Ali Dar,
  • Bhargabnanda Dass

摘要

Springs in the Indian Himalayas are vital freshwater sources, with sensitive hydrogeology and declining discharge highlighting the need for identifying potential zones for sustainable management. Conventional groundwater potential assessment methods often inadequately represent the spatial distribution and sustainability of springs. To address this, the study compares traditional Groundwater Potential Zone (GWPZ) mapping with a mountain-specific Spring Water Potential Zone (SWPZ) framework in the Bhilangana Block, Lesser Himalaya, Uttarakhand, India. Both frameworks were developed using GIS-based AHP: the GWPZ used standard hydrogeological and terrain parameters, while the SWPZ incorporated micro-topographic and ecological controls on spring discharge, including slope aspect, terrain curvature, and NDVI-derived vegetation. Each model classified the area into five potential zones, very low to very high for direct spatial comparison. The groundwater-based model delineated 12.79%, 26.71%, 25.96%, 22.95%, and 11.59% of the study area under very low to very high potential zones, respectively. In comparison, the spring-focused model allocated 13.33%, 27.74%, 27.30%, 22.28%, and 9.34% of the area to the corresponding classes, reflecting a refined spatial distribution influenced by local terrain and ecohydrological conditions. Model validation using 123 field-verified spring locations and Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) analysis produced Area Under the Curve (AUC) values of 0.692 for the groundwater-based model and 0.731 for the spring-specific framework. Notably, the spring-focused approach identified twelve additional springs within high and very high potential zones. Although the improvement in predictive performance is modest, Model performance was further assessed using bootstrap-based statistical comparison of spring-wise prediction scores. The SWPZ framework showed a statistically significant but modest improvement over the conventional GWPZ approach, demonstrating the benefit of integrating micro-topographic and ecohydrological variables for predicting spring emergence in mountainous regions. The proposed framework offers a robust and transferable basis for springshed delineation and sustainable spring water management across the Himalayan region and similar mountain environments.

Graphical abstract

The graphical abstract illustrates the methodological framework and comparative analysis between a conventional Groundwater Potential Zone (GWPZ) mapping approach and a specialized Spring Water Potential Zone (SWPZ) model in the Bhilangana block of the Lesser Himalaya, Uttarakhand, India. The left panel visualizes the comprehensive geospatial database comprising eleven thematic layers, including Lithology, Slope, Lineament Density, and critical ecohydrological factors like NDVI and Curvature synthesized using a GIS-based Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP). The central workflow depicts the integration of remote sensing data and weighted overlay analysis to prioritize micro-topographic controls governing spring emergence. The primary output is the SWPZ map (right panel), categorizing the region into five potential classes ranging from very low to very high. The validation section, featuring a Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) curve, demonstrates the superior accuracy of the spring-specific model (AUC = 0.731) over the conventional groundwater model (AUC = 0.692), validated against 123 field-verified spring locations. Notably, the spring-focused approach identifies distinct high-potential zones compared to the conventional model. The visual inclusion of community members utilizing a spring source underscores the study’s societal relevance. By providing a statistically improved delineation of potential zones, this framework offers a robust scientific basis for targeted springshed management and sustainable water security in structurally complex mountain ecosystems.