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<p>Wire and Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) has emerged as an efficient technology for producing large-scale metallic components, achieving up to 90% energy efficiency compared with powder-based laser or electron-beam processes. However, the relationship between deposition parameters and the final quality of WAAM parts remains not fully understood, particularly regarding microstructural anisotropy, mechanical performance, and corrosion resistance. The principal contribution of this study lies in the integrated processing framework adopted, which combines bead-geometry optimisation, inter-bead spacing optimisation, precise control of the interlayer dwell time (ILDT), and the implementation of 0°, 67°, and 90° interlayer reorientation strategies, enabling the correlation of crystallographic texture with mechanical behavior and corrosion response evaluated in three directions in WAAM-fabricated 316L stainless steel. Optimal deposition parameters were defined, and samples were analyzed using electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD), mechanical testing, and electrochemical corrosion measurements. The results showed that higher welding speeds increased the bead aspect ratio, while higher wire feed rates reduced it, also influencing the contact angle, which decreased as the deposition rate increased. Shorter interlayer intervals reduced total fabrication time but affected surface flatness and finish, depending on the reorientation angle. Mechanically, specimens produced with 67° and 90° reorientation angles exhibited reduced grain orientation, higher strength, and more homogeneous austenitic microstructures with a lower ferrite fraction. Regarding corrosion behavior, samples fabricated with a 67° reorientation angle in the TWD direction showed more positive corrosion potential and enhanced passivation capacity, indicating improved stability in aggressive environments. Overall, the results highlight the critical role of precise control of reorientation angle and interlayer time in balancing productivity, mechanical integrity, and corrosion resistance in WAAM-fabricated components. The findings reinforce the potential of process optimization to expand WAAM’s industrial applicability, particularly in marine, oil and gas, automotive, and power generation sectors, where components require high strength and corrosion resistance.</p> Graphical abstract <p></p>

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Influence of reorientation angle and interlayer time on the microstructural, mechanical, and corrosion properties of 316L stainless steel fabricated by WAAM

  • 期刊论文

  • 出版模式：

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  • 发表日期：

    2026年7月14日

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  • Danna Lizbeth Contreras Meza,
  • Waqar Ahmed,
  • Francisco Maciel de Brito Neto,
  • Murilo Oliveira Alves Ferreira,
  • Tamires de Souza Nossa,
  • Jéferson Aparecido Moreto,
  • Haroldo Cavalcanti Pinto

摘要

Wire and Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) has emerged as an efficient technology for producing large-scale metallic components, achieving up to 90% energy efficiency compared with powder-based laser or electron-beam processes. However, the relationship between deposition parameters and the final quality of WAAM parts remains not fully understood, particularly regarding microstructural anisotropy, mechanical performance, and corrosion resistance. The principal contribution of this study lies in the integrated processing framework adopted, which combines bead-geometry optimisation, inter-bead spacing optimisation, precise control of the interlayer dwell time (ILDT), and the implementation of 0°, 67°, and 90° interlayer reorientation strategies, enabling the correlation of crystallographic texture with mechanical behavior and corrosion response evaluated in three directions in WAAM-fabricated 316L stainless steel. Optimal deposition parameters were defined, and samples were analyzed using electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD), mechanical testing, and electrochemical corrosion measurements. The results showed that higher welding speeds increased the bead aspect ratio, while higher wire feed rates reduced it, also influencing the contact angle, which decreased as the deposition rate increased. Shorter interlayer intervals reduced total fabrication time but affected surface flatness and finish, depending on the reorientation angle. Mechanically, specimens produced with 67° and 90° reorientation angles exhibited reduced grain orientation, higher strength, and more homogeneous austenitic microstructures with a lower ferrite fraction. Regarding corrosion behavior, samples fabricated with a 67° reorientation angle in the TWD direction showed more positive corrosion potential and enhanced passivation capacity, indicating improved stability in aggressive environments. Overall, the results highlight the critical role of precise control of reorientation angle and interlayer time in balancing productivity, mechanical integrity, and corrosion resistance in WAAM-fabricated components. The findings reinforce the potential of process optimization to expand WAAM’s industrial applicability, particularly in marine, oil and gas, automotive, and power generation sectors, where components require high strength and corrosion resistance.

Graphical abstract