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<p>Smart metallic structures (SMS) with embedded sensors are gaining significant interest as they enable real-time sensing and structural monitoring in mission-critical applications. However, integrating sensors directly into metallic materials remains challenging due to the extreme thermal loads and metallurgical incompatibilities inherent to metal additive manufacturing (MAM). To address this gap, this study introduces a convergent manufacturing pathway that integrates wirearc additive manufacturing (WAAM), subtractive machining, ceramic sensor shielding, and cold spray metallization to realize smart metallic structures with fully embedded sensing capabilities. The developed sensor encapsulation approach, combining ceramic shielding with cold spray metallization, enables seamless WAAM deposition over the sensor regions and allows the embedding of commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) sensors in structural aluminum alloy beams (Al-5356), resulting in fully functional smart beams. Unlike prior studies that typically demonstrate a single sensing modality with single-sensor embedding, this work integrates a dense multi layer and multi modal sensor network featuring multiple sensor configurations within a standard bending beam footprint (180&#xa0;mm <InlineEquation ID="IEq1"> <EquationSource Format="TEX">\(\times\)</EquationSource> </InlineEquation> 20&#xa0;mm <InlineEquation ID="IEq2"> <EquationSource Format="TEX">\(\times\)</EquationSource> </InlineEquation> 13&#xa0;mm). This represents a significant advancement in both sensor density and integration fidelity for MAM. Comprehensive thermal and mechanical experiments confirm that the embedded sensors remain fully functional and accurate throughout testing. The temperature sensors (RTDs) capture both steady-state and transient thermal responses with less than 2.2% error, while the strain gauges provide high-fidelity measurements with deviations below 2.5%. Furthermore, the fabricated smart beams exhibit a mechanical debit of less than 11% under static bending and less than 20% under dynamic bending relative to baseline beams without embedded sensors, while maintaining full structural and sensing integrity. This work establishes a convergent manufacturing pathway that enables reliable sensor embedding under the demanding conditions of MAM and marks a significant step toward next-generation SMS.</p>

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A convergent manufacturing pathway for smart metallic structures with embedded sensing

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2026年7月10日

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  • Jinhan Ren,
  • Shinan Huang,
  • Sazedur Rahman,
  • Peiyuan Zhou,
  • Yiming Fan,
  • Brandon Villanueva,
  • Glenn Saunders,
  • John Wen,
  • Sandipan Mishra,
  • Johnson Samuel,
  • Fotis Kopsaftopoulos,
  • Semih Akin

摘要

Smart metallic structures (SMS) with embedded sensors are gaining significant interest as they enable real-time sensing and structural monitoring in mission-critical applications. However, integrating sensors directly into metallic materials remains challenging due to the extreme thermal loads and metallurgical incompatibilities inherent to metal additive manufacturing (MAM). To address this gap, this study introduces a convergent manufacturing pathway that integrates wirearc additive manufacturing (WAAM), subtractive machining, ceramic sensor shielding, and cold spray metallization to realize smart metallic structures with fully embedded sensing capabilities. The developed sensor encapsulation approach, combining ceramic shielding with cold spray metallization, enables seamless WAAM deposition over the sensor regions and allows the embedding of commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) sensors in structural aluminum alloy beams (Al-5356), resulting in fully functional smart beams. Unlike prior studies that typically demonstrate a single sensing modality with single-sensor embedding, this work integrates a dense multi layer and multi modal sensor network featuring multiple sensor configurations within a standard bending beam footprint (180 mm \(\times\) 20 mm \(\times\) 13 mm). This represents a significant advancement in both sensor density and integration fidelity for MAM. Comprehensive thermal and mechanical experiments confirm that the embedded sensors remain fully functional and accurate throughout testing. The temperature sensors (RTDs) capture both steady-state and transient thermal responses with less than 2.2% error, while the strain gauges provide high-fidelity measurements with deviations below 2.5%. Furthermore, the fabricated smart beams exhibit a mechanical debit of less than 11% under static bending and less than 20% under dynamic bending relative to baseline beams without embedded sensors, while maintaining full structural and sensing integrity. This work establishes a convergent manufacturing pathway that enables reliable sensor embedding under the demanding conditions of MAM and marks a significant step toward next-generation SMS.