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Purpose of the Review <p>Microwave disinfection technology is rapidly evolving from traditional thermal treatment to controllable physical field-driven methods. Its disinfection effects in water, solid, and air media can rival or even surpass those of chemical disinfection. By re-examining the long-standing debate around thermal and non-thermal effects, this review systematically summarizes the progress in microwave disinfection research. It aims to provide a theoretical basis and forward-looking directions for the development of precise, efficient, and energy-saving microwave disinfection strategies.</p> Abstract <p> This review addresses the ambiguity between thermal and non-thermal effects in microwave disinfection, as well as the lack of quantification regarding their synergistic mechanisms, and proposes a comprehensive conceptual framework. Thermal effects achieve rapid inactivation through volumetric heating of dielectric materials; efficient disinfection can be attained within one minute when temperatures reach or exceed 80°C. When electric field strength exceeds 1.5 kV·m⁻¹ and specific absorption rate (SAR) surpasses 5 kW·kg⁻¹, non-thermal effects can act independently of overall temperature, inducing microbial inactivation via electroporation and intracellular reactive oxygen species generation. Compared to a thermal effect baseline of 0.7-1.4 log reduction, non-thermal effects contribute an additional 1.1-1.8 log inactivation, increasing total inactivation efficiency by 2 to 4 times. Under typical low ionic strength aqueous conditions, the transition between dominant thermal and non-thermal effects is determined by a power density threshold of approximately 60 W·L⁻¹. In microwave-assisted advanced oxidation processes (MW-AOPs), confining radical reactions to the catalyst surface reduces energy consumption to 0.08 kWh·log⁻¹. Furthermore, a classification strategy based on microbial structure has been established: Gram-negative (G⁻) bacteria with high-dielectric-loss outer membranes are best suited for continuous-wave treatment, whereas Gram-positive (G⁺) bacteria require pulsed microwave modulation to penetrate their thick peptidoglycan barrier. This review provides a scientific foundation for the rational design of efficient, low-energy microwave disinfection systems.</p> Graphical Abstract <p></p>

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Mechanism Analysis and Precise Regulation Strategies of Non-Thermal Effects and Synergistic Effects in Microwave Disinfection

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2026年7月20日

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  • Ying-Xiang Fu,
  • Jun-Jie Wang,
  • Hao Wu,
  • Zhi-Cheng Pan,
  • Wei Hu,
  • Ye Du

摘要

Purpose of the Review

Microwave disinfection technology is rapidly evolving from traditional thermal treatment to controllable physical field-driven methods. Its disinfection effects in water, solid, and air media can rival or even surpass those of chemical disinfection. By re-examining the long-standing debate around thermal and non-thermal effects, this review systematically summarizes the progress in microwave disinfection research. It aims to provide a theoretical basis and forward-looking directions for the development of precise, efficient, and energy-saving microwave disinfection strategies.

Abstract

This review addresses the ambiguity between thermal and non-thermal effects in microwave disinfection, as well as the lack of quantification regarding their synergistic mechanisms, and proposes a comprehensive conceptual framework. Thermal effects achieve rapid inactivation through volumetric heating of dielectric materials; efficient disinfection can be attained within one minute when temperatures reach or exceed 80°C. When electric field strength exceeds 1.5 kV·m⁻¹ and specific absorption rate (SAR) surpasses 5 kW·kg⁻¹, non-thermal effects can act independently of overall temperature, inducing microbial inactivation via electroporation and intracellular reactive oxygen species generation. Compared to a thermal effect baseline of 0.7-1.4 log reduction, non-thermal effects contribute an additional 1.1-1.8 log inactivation, increasing total inactivation efficiency by 2 to 4 times. Under typical low ionic strength aqueous conditions, the transition between dominant thermal and non-thermal effects is determined by a power density threshold of approximately 60 W·L⁻¹. In microwave-assisted advanced oxidation processes (MW-AOPs), confining radical reactions to the catalyst surface reduces energy consumption to 0.08 kWh·log⁻¹. Furthermore, a classification strategy based on microbial structure has been established: Gram-negative (G⁻) bacteria with high-dielectric-loss outer membranes are best suited for continuous-wave treatment, whereas Gram-positive (G⁺) bacteria require pulsed microwave modulation to penetrate their thick peptidoglycan barrier. This review provides a scientific foundation for the rational design of efficient, low-energy microwave disinfection systems.

Graphical Abstract