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Background <p>While racial disparities in COVID-19-related outcomes and the role of social determinants of health (SDOH) are well documented, few studies have examined how race/ethnicity and SDOH jointly influence the occurrence of long COVID (LC) and the variation in its primary symptoms.</p> Methods <p>Using 2022 Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System data, we estimated LC prevalence across racial/ethnic groups and calculated a SDOH summary score (0–10), with higher scores indicating greater exposure to adverse SDOH. Logistic regressions were employed to assess associations of SDOH and race/ethnicity with the presence of LC and primary LC symptoms. Adjusted average marginal effects (AMEs) were calculated to quantify differences in LC prevalence across SDOH levels and racial/ethnic groups.</p> Results <p>Among 92,109 respondents who tested positive for COVID-19, 20,393 (22.14%) reported experiencing LC. Compared to non-Hispanic Whites, non-Hispanic Black (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] = 0.82, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.668–0.999) and Asian (aOR = 0.58, 95% CI:0.370.89) individuals were less likely to report LC. Higher SDOH scores were associated with increased LC risk, with aOR (95%CI) being 1.47(1.28–1.69), 1.56(1.29–1.87), 2.26(1.80–2.83), and 3.21(2.65–3.89) for scores of 1, 2, 3, and ≥ 4, respectively, compared with a score of 0. Compared to White individuals, Black and Hispanic respondents had higher odds of reporting joint/muscle pain (aOR = 3.03, 95%CI: 1.49–6.18, and OR = 3.11, 95%CI: 1.84–5.25, respectively). Higher SDOH scores were linked to increased risk of joint/muscle pain, dizziness, and post-exertional symptoms, but decreased risk of taste/smell loss.</p> Conclusion <p>Greater SDOH burden was associated with higher LC prevalence and variation in primary symptoms, with effects differing across racial/ethnic groups. These findings highlight the importance of addressing social conditions in efforts to reduce LC disparities.</p>

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Racial Disparities and Social Determinants of Long COVID in the United States: Evidence from the 2022 Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System

  • 期刊论文

  • 出版模式：

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  • 发表日期：

    2026年6月19日

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  • Sarah Pence,
  • Yiding Zhuang,
  • Fanghui Shi,
  • Xueying Yang

摘要

Background

While racial disparities in COVID-19-related outcomes and the role of social determinants of health (SDOH) are well documented, few studies have examined how race/ethnicity and SDOH jointly influence the occurrence of long COVID (LC) and the variation in its primary symptoms.

Methods

Using 2022 Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System data, we estimated LC prevalence across racial/ethnic groups and calculated a SDOH summary score (0–10), with higher scores indicating greater exposure to adverse SDOH. Logistic regressions were employed to assess associations of SDOH and race/ethnicity with the presence of LC and primary LC symptoms. Adjusted average marginal effects (AMEs) were calculated to quantify differences in LC prevalence across SDOH levels and racial/ethnic groups.

Results

Among 92,109 respondents who tested positive for COVID-19, 20,393 (22.14%) reported experiencing LC. Compared to non-Hispanic Whites, non-Hispanic Black (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] = 0.82, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.668–0.999) and Asian (aOR = 0.58, 95% CI:0.370.89) individuals were less likely to report LC. Higher SDOH scores were associated with increased LC risk, with aOR (95%CI) being 1.47(1.28–1.69), 1.56(1.29–1.87), 2.26(1.80–2.83), and 3.21(2.65–3.89) for scores of 1, 2, 3, and ≥ 4, respectively, compared with a score of 0. Compared to White individuals, Black and Hispanic respondents had higher odds of reporting joint/muscle pain (aOR = 3.03, 95%CI: 1.49–6.18, and OR = 3.11, 95%CI: 1.84–5.25, respectively). Higher SDOH scores were linked to increased risk of joint/muscle pain, dizziness, and post-exertional symptoms, but decreased risk of taste/smell loss.

Conclusion

Greater SDOH burden was associated with higher LC prevalence and variation in primary symptoms, with effects differing across racial/ethnic groups. These findings highlight the importance of addressing social conditions in efforts to reduce LC disparities.