A Comprehensive State of the Art on the Impact of Freeze–Thaw Cycles on the Engineering and Index Properties of Soils

Freeze–thaw cycle is an environmental process characterized by the repeated and consecutive freezing and thawing of soil. This cycle can induce significant changes in soil properties, which have profound implications for infrastructure stability, agricultural productivity, and environmental conservation. This review paper explores the impact of freeze–thaw cycles on the engineering and index properties of soil, including permeability, porosity, density, Atterberg limits and consistency, compressibility, compaction properties and shear strength. Freeze–thaw process is a critical environmental factor that affects soil behaviour, particularly in regions with seasonal temperature fluctuations. Hence, a complete understanding of these effects is essential for applications in civil engineering, agriculture, and environmental management.