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<p>The present review compares the effect of the interaction between ecological and anthropogenic factors, especially in non-human primates, Old World macaques (<i>Macaca</i> spp.) and New World capuchin monkeys (<i>Cebus/Sapajus</i> spp.), on activity and sleep patterns, anxiety-related responses, aggression, emotional regulation, cognition and decision-making, and sexual behaviour. Evidence suggests that pressures associated with provisioning, tourism, habitat modification, and direct conflict rarely act in isolation. Instead, this is influenced by ecological contexts such as climate, habitat structure, seasonality, and resource availability, which often intensify existing constraints rather than creating entirely new ones. Behaviours appearing adaptive on the surface, including tolerance of human presence or innovative foraging strategies, may therefore mask substantial underlying costs. Among synanthropic macaques and cognitively flexible capuchins, such costs can include sustained physiological stress, altered social relationships, and changes in reproductive dynamics with potential long-term demographic implications. In the Indian context, environmental heterogeneity produces strong regional variation in behavioural outcomes. Thus, the present review highlights the need to consider how environmental conditions and anthropogenic pressures interactively shape behavioural responses and concludes by outlining priorities for long-term, interdisciplinary research. Behavioural parameters, when interpreted within their ecological context, are emphasised as critical tools for conservation planning and the development of realistic coexistence strategies in increasingly human-dominated landscapes.</p>

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Human–Primate Interfaces in Changing Ecosystems: Comparative Behavioural Perspectives from Macaques and Capuchins

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2026年4月15日

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  • Pankaj Kumar,
  • Rishabh Rai

摘要

The present review compares the effect of the interaction between ecological and anthropogenic factors, especially in non-human primates, Old World macaques (Macaca spp.) and New World capuchin monkeys (Cebus/Sapajus spp.), on activity and sleep patterns, anxiety-related responses, aggression, emotional regulation, cognition and decision-making, and sexual behaviour. Evidence suggests that pressures associated with provisioning, tourism, habitat modification, and direct conflict rarely act in isolation. Instead, this is influenced by ecological contexts such as climate, habitat structure, seasonality, and resource availability, which often intensify existing constraints rather than creating entirely new ones. Behaviours appearing adaptive on the surface, including tolerance of human presence or innovative foraging strategies, may therefore mask substantial underlying costs. Among synanthropic macaques and cognitively flexible capuchins, such costs can include sustained physiological stress, altered social relationships, and changes in reproductive dynamics with potential long-term demographic implications. In the Indian context, environmental heterogeneity produces strong regional variation in behavioural outcomes. Thus, the present review highlights the need to consider how environmental conditions and anthropogenic pressures interactively shape behavioural responses and concludes by outlining priorities for long-term, interdisciplinary research. Behavioural parameters, when interpreted within their ecological context, are emphasised as critical tools for conservation planning and the development of realistic coexistence strategies in increasingly human-dominated landscapes.