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Background <p><i>Citrobacter</i> spp., a genus of Gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, non-spore-forming rods, belong to the Enterobacteriaceae family. They are widely distributed in natural environments, including soil, water, and sewage, and are also part of the intestinal flora of humans and animals. These bacteria often act as opportunistic pathogens, posing a severe threat to immunocompromised and the intensive care unit (ICU) patients. Therefore, the rise of multidrug-resistant (MDR)&#xa0;<i>Citrobacter</i>&#xa0;strains represents a rapidly escalating clinical concern.</p> Objective <p>This review discusses the emergence of MDR<i>Citrobacter</i> spp. and explores the bacterial strategies and mechanisms that contribute to the development and persistence of antimicrobial resistance.</p> Methods <p>A narrative review of the published literature was conducted, focusing on clinical, experimental and surveillance studies that describe antibiotic resistance patterns and mechanisms in <i>Citrobacter</i> spp.</p> Results <p><i>Citrobacter</i> spp. are associated with a range of infections, including urinary tract infections (UTIs), gastrointestinal diseases, neonatal meningitis, and sepsis. Recent reports indicate a growing prevalence of MDR <i>Citrobacter</i>, resistant to multiple antibiotic classes, including some last-resort agents. They utilize β-lactamases production, efflux pump overexpression, target-site modifications, and mobile genetic elements to acquire and spread resistance.</p> Conclusions <p><i>Citrobacter</i> has evolved as a significant opportunistic pathogen. Extensive investigation into its resistance genes, regulatory pathways and horizontal gene transfer mechanisms is essential for drug development, drug repurposing and generation of alternative therapeutic options to mitigate antibiotic overuse.</p>

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From environmental reservoirs to clinical threats: the expanding resistome and genetic plasticity of Citrobacter spp.

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2026年3月9日

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  • Ankita Purkayastha,
  • Shyamalima Saikia,
  • Indrani Gogoi,
  • Pankaj Chetia

摘要

Background

Citrobacter spp., a genus of Gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, non-spore-forming rods, belong to the Enterobacteriaceae family. They are widely distributed in natural environments, including soil, water, and sewage, and are also part of the intestinal flora of humans and animals. These bacteria often act as opportunistic pathogens, posing a severe threat to immunocompromised and the intensive care unit (ICU) patients. Therefore, the rise of multidrug-resistant (MDR) Citrobacter strains represents a rapidly escalating clinical concern.

Objective

This review discusses the emergence of MDRCitrobacter spp. and explores the bacterial strategies and mechanisms that contribute to the development and persistence of antimicrobial resistance.

Methods

A narrative review of the published literature was conducted, focusing on clinical, experimental and surveillance studies that describe antibiotic resistance patterns and mechanisms in Citrobacter spp.

Results

Citrobacter spp. are associated with a range of infections, including urinary tract infections (UTIs), gastrointestinal diseases, neonatal meningitis, and sepsis. Recent reports indicate a growing prevalence of MDR Citrobacter, resistant to multiple antibiotic classes, including some last-resort agents. They utilize β-lactamases production, efflux pump overexpression, target-site modifications, and mobile genetic elements to acquire and spread resistance.

Conclusions

Citrobacter has evolved as a significant opportunistic pathogen. Extensive investigation into its resistance genes, regulatory pathways and horizontal gene transfer mechanisms is essential for drug development, drug repurposing and generation of alternative therapeutic options to mitigate antibiotic overuse.