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<p>Addressing pharmaceutical pollution on a global scale is crucial, with amoxicillin (AMX) being among the most extensively used antibiotics in both human and veterinary medicine. This study presents an innovative photocatalyst for AMX degradation using Zn-incorporated α-Bi<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> thin films under visible light. The optimization of process parameters was carried out using Central Composite Design (CCD) under Response Surface Methodology (RSM), considering three variables (a) temperature (210–490&#xa0;°C), (b) Zn concentration (0.17–5.83%wt), and (c) antibiotic dose (14.65–85.35&#xa0;mg/L). The optimized catalyst (Zn-αBO-357–3.19–25) demonstrated a high degradation efficiency of 70.06% and total organic carbon (TOC) removal of 49.28% after 3&#xa0;h of visible light irradiation. A quadratic model showed strong correlation, with coefficient of determination (R<sup>2</sup>) for degradation efficiency and TOC removal was 0.9925 and 0.9593, respectively. The Zn- αBO thin films were characterized using UV–Vis, XRD, FTIR, SEM, AFM, XPS, and TGA techniques. The measured band gap energy of 2.42&#xa0;eV indicated strong visible light absorption. The catalyst maintained over 65% degradation efficiency across five reuse cycles. When applied to real pharmaceutical wastewater, the Zn-αBO thin films achieved 64.23% COD removal, 51.52% BOD removal, and 57.58% reduction in TSS. These results highlight a promising strategy for mitigating pharmaceutical contamination in wastewater through optimized photocatalytic degradation using CCD.</p> Graphical abstract <p></p>

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Zinc-incorporated α-Bi2O3 thin films for visible-light degradation of amoxicillin: optimization, characterization, and application to pharmaceutical wastewater

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2026年1月5日

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  • F. Sa’adah,
  • H. Sutanto,
  • H. Hadiyanto,
  • A. Khumaeni

摘要

Addressing pharmaceutical pollution on a global scale is crucial, with amoxicillin (AMX) being among the most extensively used antibiotics in both human and veterinary medicine. This study presents an innovative photocatalyst for AMX degradation using Zn-incorporated α-Bi2O3 thin films under visible light. The optimization of process parameters was carried out using Central Composite Design (CCD) under Response Surface Methodology (RSM), considering three variables (a) temperature (210–490 °C), (b) Zn concentration (0.17–5.83%wt), and (c) antibiotic dose (14.65–85.35 mg/L). The optimized catalyst (Zn-αBO-357–3.19–25) demonstrated a high degradation efficiency of 70.06% and total organic carbon (TOC) removal of 49.28% after 3 h of visible light irradiation. A quadratic model showed strong correlation, with coefficient of determination (R2) for degradation efficiency and TOC removal was 0.9925 and 0.9593, respectively. The Zn- αBO thin films were characterized using UV–Vis, XRD, FTIR, SEM, AFM, XPS, and TGA techniques. The measured band gap energy of 2.42 eV indicated strong visible light absorption. The catalyst maintained over 65% degradation efficiency across five reuse cycles. When applied to real pharmaceutical wastewater, the Zn-αBO thin films achieved 64.23% COD removal, 51.52% BOD removal, and 57.58% reduction in TSS. These results highlight a promising strategy for mitigating pharmaceutical contamination in wastewater through optimized photocatalytic degradation using CCD.

Graphical abstract