Recent advances in nano-based approaches for the removal of diclofenac: a comprehensive review

Diclofenac, a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug, is widely used as a painkiller for both humans and animals. Its usage has increased due to the prevalence of lifestyle diseases such as arthritis, heart diseases, and toothache. Consequently, diclofenac is often detected in various environmental sources, posing ecological risks. Diclofenac has many medicinal advantages, but its environmental persistence and harmful impacts on the aquatic ecosystem highlight the urgent need for efficient wastewater management and treatment plans. While several reviews have addressed diclofenac removal, this review uniquely focuses on the application of nano-based approaches, providing a detailed analysis of their efficiency and potential. Nano-based approaches show great promise in addressing these issues, as highlighted by the high efficiency of nanomaterials-mediated photocatalytic degradation in diclofenac removal. Nano-based materials such as bimetallic palladium-iron (PdFe) catalysts, carbon nanotubes functionalized iron nanoparticles (FeNPs-CNTs), and others exhibit high efficiency in diclofenac removal. The nanomaterials degraded diclofenac byproducts have less/no toxicity. This study defines the potential of nanotechnology-driven approaches in mitigating pharmaceutical pollution, thereby safeguarding water resources and ecosystem health.