Tertiary lymphoid structures and their therapeutic implications in cancer

Tertiary lymphoid structures (TLSs) are ectopic lymphoid aggregates formed by the structured accumulation of immune cells such as B cells and T cells in non-lymphoid tissues induced by infection, inflammation, and tumors. They play a crucial role in the immune response, particularly in association with tumor development, where they primarily exert anti-tumor immune functions during tumorigenesis. Current research suggests that TLSs inhibit tumor growth by facilitating immune cell infiltration and are correlated with favorable prognosis in various solid tumors, serving as an indicator of immunotherapy effectiveness to some extent. Therefore, TLSs hold great promise as a valuable biomarker. Most importantly, immunotherapies aimed to prompting TLSs formation are anticipated to be potent adjuncts to current cancer treatment. This review focuses on the formation process of TLSs and their potential applications in cancer therapy.