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<p>Sweet orange essential oil (<i>Citrus sinensis</i>) and its major component <span>d</span>-limonene were formulated as emulsions and low- and high-energy nanoemulsions and evaluated for toxicity against adults, larvae, and pupae of <i>Drosophila suzukii</i>, as well as for selectivity toward the pupal parasitoid <i>Pachycrepoideus vindemmiae</i>. High-energy nanoemulsions produced smaller and more homogeneous droplets (221–289&#xa0;nm; PDI 0.210–0.255) compared with low-energy nanoemulsions (617–796&#xa0;nm; PDI 0.548–0.644), indicating improved dispersion and potential stability. Toxicity assays revealed that the pure essential oil and <span>d-</span>limonene were the most toxic to adult <i>D. suzukii</i> (LC<sub>50</sub> = 1.7&#xa0;wt% and 0.54&#xa0;wt%, respectively), followed by high-energy nanoemulsions, emulsions, and low-energy nanoemulsions. Although pure compounds showed slightly higher toxicity, high-energy nanoemulsions maintained comparable efficacy, suggesting improved delivery without major loss of activity. Larval mortality did not exceed 40% across treatments, whereas pupae were markedly more susceptible. High-energy nanoemulsions of both orange essential oil and <span>d</span>-limonene produced the highest pupal mortality (around 85%), followed by low-energy nanoemulsions (72–77.5%) and emulsions (50–75%). In addition, emulsified and nanoemulsified formulations induced developmental abnormalities in emerged adults, with malformation rates reaching 30%. Selectivity assays demonstrated low toxicity of all formulations to adult <i>P. vindemmiae</i>, with mortality generally below 20% and a negligible reduction of parasitism activity in most treatments. Overall, the formulation method strongly influenced physicochemical properties and insecticidal performance. High-energy nanoemulsions enhanced efficacy, particularly against pupae, while maintaining low toxicity to a key parasitoid. These findings indicate that nanoformulated citrus essential oils represent promising selective and environmentally compatible tools for integrated management of <i>D. suzukii</i>.</p>

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Toxicity of emulsions, high and low energy nanoemulsions of orange essential oil and d-limonene to Drosophila suzukii, and selectivity to Pachycrepoideus vindemmiae

  • 期刊论文

  • 出版模式：

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  • 发表日期：

    2026年5月14日

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  • Carolina Bojacá López,
  • Raiany Soares de Lima,
  • Lucas Simões de Assis,
  • Juliano Elvis de Oliveira,
  • María Alice Martins,
  • Rocío Yanet Farro-Barbarán,
  • Khalid Haddi

摘要

Sweet orange essential oil (Citrus sinensis) and its major component d-limonene were formulated as emulsions and low- and high-energy nanoemulsions and evaluated for toxicity against adults, larvae, and pupae of Drosophila suzukii, as well as for selectivity toward the pupal parasitoid Pachycrepoideus vindemmiae. High-energy nanoemulsions produced smaller and more homogeneous droplets (221–289 nm; PDI 0.210–0.255) compared with low-energy nanoemulsions (617–796 nm; PDI 0.548–0.644), indicating improved dispersion and potential stability. Toxicity assays revealed that the pure essential oil and d-limonene were the most toxic to adult D. suzukii (LC50 = 1.7 wt% and 0.54 wt%, respectively), followed by high-energy nanoemulsions, emulsions, and low-energy nanoemulsions. Although pure compounds showed slightly higher toxicity, high-energy nanoemulsions maintained comparable efficacy, suggesting improved delivery without major loss of activity. Larval mortality did not exceed 40% across treatments, whereas pupae were markedly more susceptible. High-energy nanoemulsions of both orange essential oil and d-limonene produced the highest pupal mortality (around 85%), followed by low-energy nanoemulsions (72–77.5%) and emulsions (50–75%). In addition, emulsified and nanoemulsified formulations induced developmental abnormalities in emerged adults, with malformation rates reaching 30%. Selectivity assays demonstrated low toxicity of all formulations to adult P. vindemmiae, with mortality generally below 20% and a negligible reduction of parasitism activity in most treatments. Overall, the formulation method strongly influenced physicochemical properties and insecticidal performance. High-energy nanoemulsions enhanced efficacy, particularly against pupae, while maintaining low toxicity to a key parasitoid. These findings indicate that nanoformulated citrus essential oils represent promising selective and environmentally compatible tools for integrated management of D. suzukii.