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<p>Springs are important sources of water in the mid-hills of Nepal, yet they are rapidly depleting. This study was carried out in the Kathmandu Valley, Central Nepal, to map natural spring locations, assess their water quality and quantity for drinking, irrigation, and aquatic life, and evaluate overall spring ecosystem health. A total of 150 spring sources were mapped. Water quality parameters were analyzed for 146 springs in the post-monsoon season (November 2023) and 142 springs in the pre-monsoon season (March 2024). Discharge measurements were recorded for 104 and 98 springs during field visits in post-monsoon and pre-monsoon seasons, respectively, where six springs were found to be dry in the pre-monsoon season. Compared to the post-monsoon season, more than 90% of springs exhibited reduced discharge in the pre-monsoon season, indicating high vulnerability during the dry season. Significant seasonal variations in discharge were recorded for low-discharge springs (&lt; 5 lpm, <i>p</i> &lt; 0.001 and 5–10 lpm, <i>p</i> &lt; 0.03), reflecting their sensitivity to enhanced monsoonal recharge. All measured water quality parameters except phosphate, were within the threshold limits of the WHO, the National Drinking Water Quality Standards of Nepal, and Indian and Chinese guidelines for aquatic animal protection. The Weighted Arithmetic Water Quality Index (WAWQI) showed that in the post-monsoon season, 26.69% of springs were classified as good, 48.97% as poor, 12.41% as very poor, and 17.93% as unsuitable for drinking. In the pre-monsoon season, 22.54% of springs were classified as good, 33.80% as poor, 10.56% as very poor, and 33.10% as unsuitable for human consumption. Piper plot showed a predominance of the Ca-HCO₃ facies in both post-monsoon (90.41%) and pre-monsoon (80.27%) seasons, indicating that carbonate weathering is the dominant process. Factor analysis identified geology and anthropogenic activities as the primary factors influencing spring water chemistry. The Wilcox diagram revealed that the sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) values of springs in both seasons were suitable for irrigation. Overall, this study provides valuable insights into the seasonal variability, hydrochemistry, and sustainability of springs in the Kathmandu Valley and underscores the urgent need for management interventions to ensure their long-term yield and conservation.</p>

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Seasonal dynamics of spring water quality and quantity in urban cities of Kathmandu Valley, Central Nepal

  • 期刊论文

  • 出版模式：

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  • 发表日期：

    2026年3月30日

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  • Deep Narayan Shah,
  • Ram Devi Tachamo Shah,
  • Kiran Mishra,
  • Sarita Pokhrel,
  • Sirjana Jha,
  • Prabha Mishra

摘要

Springs are important sources of water in the mid-hills of Nepal, yet they are rapidly depleting. This study was carried out in the Kathmandu Valley, Central Nepal, to map natural spring locations, assess their water quality and quantity for drinking, irrigation, and aquatic life, and evaluate overall spring ecosystem health. A total of 150 spring sources were mapped. Water quality parameters were analyzed for 146 springs in the post-monsoon season (November 2023) and 142 springs in the pre-monsoon season (March 2024). Discharge measurements were recorded for 104 and 98 springs during field visits in post-monsoon and pre-monsoon seasons, respectively, where six springs were found to be dry in the pre-monsoon season. Compared to the post-monsoon season, more than 90% of springs exhibited reduced discharge in the pre-monsoon season, indicating high vulnerability during the dry season. Significant seasonal variations in discharge were recorded for low-discharge springs (< 5 lpm, p < 0.001 and 5–10 lpm, p < 0.03), reflecting their sensitivity to enhanced monsoonal recharge. All measured water quality parameters except phosphate, were within the threshold limits of the WHO, the National Drinking Water Quality Standards of Nepal, and Indian and Chinese guidelines for aquatic animal protection. The Weighted Arithmetic Water Quality Index (WAWQI) showed that in the post-monsoon season, 26.69% of springs were classified as good, 48.97% as poor, 12.41% as very poor, and 17.93% as unsuitable for drinking. In the pre-monsoon season, 22.54% of springs were classified as good, 33.80% as poor, 10.56% as very poor, and 33.10% as unsuitable for human consumption. Piper plot showed a predominance of the Ca-HCO₃ facies in both post-monsoon (90.41%) and pre-monsoon (80.27%) seasons, indicating that carbonate weathering is the dominant process. Factor analysis identified geology and anthropogenic activities as the primary factors influencing spring water chemistry. The Wilcox diagram revealed that the sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) values of springs in both seasons were suitable for irrigation. Overall, this study provides valuable insights into the seasonal variability, hydrochemistry, and sustainability of springs in the Kathmandu Valley and underscores the urgent need for management interventions to ensure their long-term yield and conservation.