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<p>The contamination of drinking water with heavy metals is a pervasive issue globally. In Punjab, Pakistan, where water resources face increasing threats from various anthropogenic and natural factors, the quality of drinking water in primary schools has emerged as a serious concern, leading to the present study which assessed the drinking water quality and related potential health risks among school children. Drinking water samples from 274 schools (rural and suburban) were collected using simple random sampling and were analyzed for selected parameters using standard methods. The results when compared with World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines for drinking water quality showed that, Total Coliform (36%), Chloride (29.56%), Fluoride (12.04%), Nitrate (16.42%), Chromium (7.30%), Nickel (8.39%), and Arsenic (10.95%) exceeded the WHO recommended limits. This led to the estimation of potential health risk among users (children) due to Cr, Ni, Pb, As and F, using USEPA guidelines. Among risk assessment results, Hazard Quotient (HQ) indices for Cr, As, and F exceeded 1 in all samples, indicating potential health risks. The Cancer Risk (CR) values for Cr, Ni, and As exceeded E-04 in some samples, suggesting possible carcinogenic effects on the study population. However, the majority of samples showed HQ values below 1 for Ni and Pb, indicating lower non-carcinogenic risks for these metals. Monte Carlo simulation applied for non-carcinogenic risk assessment showed As &gt; F &gt; Cr &gt; Ni &gt; Pb. Pearson correlation matrix revealed statistically significant relationships (<i>p</i> &lt; 0.01) between various physiochemical parameters. Health risk survey from parents of the children established that majority of the respondents were not aware of water borne diseases and reported to have Hepatitis A (12.7%), Kidney problems (13%), Diarrhoea/Vomiting (26%), Abdominal pain (25%), tiredness (33.3%) and Dysentery (4.8%) etc. It is high time to focus on localized/subsidized solutions to address emerging water quality issues specifically as the sensitive population of the region is increasingly becoming effected through consuming compromised quality drinking water.</p>

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Evaluating drinking water quality and associated health risks in primary schools of Punjab: a multi-method approach combining conventional analysis, Monte Carlo simulation, and geospatial mapping

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2025年6月9日

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  • Ayesha Mohsin,
  • Sana Akhtar,
  • Farhan Mohsin

摘要

The contamination of drinking water with heavy metals is a pervasive issue globally. In Punjab, Pakistan, where water resources face increasing threats from various anthropogenic and natural factors, the quality of drinking water in primary schools has emerged as a serious concern, leading to the present study which assessed the drinking water quality and related potential health risks among school children. Drinking water samples from 274 schools (rural and suburban) were collected using simple random sampling and were analyzed for selected parameters using standard methods. The results when compared with World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines for drinking water quality showed that, Total Coliform (36%), Chloride (29.56%), Fluoride (12.04%), Nitrate (16.42%), Chromium (7.30%), Nickel (8.39%), and Arsenic (10.95%) exceeded the WHO recommended limits. This led to the estimation of potential health risk among users (children) due to Cr, Ni, Pb, As and F, using USEPA guidelines. Among risk assessment results, Hazard Quotient (HQ) indices for Cr, As, and F exceeded 1 in all samples, indicating potential health risks. The Cancer Risk (CR) values for Cr, Ni, and As exceeded E-04 in some samples, suggesting possible carcinogenic effects on the study population. However, the majority of samples showed HQ values below 1 for Ni and Pb, indicating lower non-carcinogenic risks for these metals. Monte Carlo simulation applied for non-carcinogenic risk assessment showed As > F > Cr > Ni > Pb. Pearson correlation matrix revealed statistically significant relationships (p < 0.01) between various physiochemical parameters. Health risk survey from parents of the children established that majority of the respondents were not aware of water borne diseases and reported to have Hepatitis A (12.7%), Kidney problems (13%), Diarrhoea/Vomiting (26%), Abdominal pain (25%), tiredness (33.3%) and Dysentery (4.8%) etc. It is high time to focus on localized/subsidized solutions to address emerging water quality issues specifically as the sensitive population of the region is increasingly becoming effected through consuming compromised quality drinking water.