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<p>Resource recovery from source-separated human urine is a circular economy approach wherein valuable nutrients are recovered and applied for crop growth and food production. Treating urine at the source helps in the reduction of nutrient loads on municipal wastewater treatment plants and plummeting the dependency on mined phosphorus through resource recovery strategies. Systems for separation of urine at source are strongly recommended where nutrients are recovered effectively closer to the source. This paper reviews the (i) significance and opportunities of closed loop sanitation systems, (ii) technical challenges of separating urine at source followed by its collection and storage, (iii) challenges in growth of crops and food production through direct/indirect application of urine to agriculture and (iv) existing and upcoming technologies in the recovery of nutrients, including their limitations. The review, while highlighting the scope of source-separated urine as an untapped resource for nutrient recovery, also identifies the barriers and challenges that must be addressed to enable large scale implementation of such systems.</p> Graphical abstract <p></p>

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Closed Loop Sanitation Systems (CLSS): A Comprehensive Review on Challenges in Source Separation, Urine-Based Fertilization and Nutrient Recovery Technologies

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2026年1月5日

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  • Dhivakar Govindarajan,
  • M. Devasena,
  • Indumathi M. Nambi,
  • Tiju Thomas,
  • Harold Leverenz,
  • Kahui Lim

摘要

Resource recovery from source-separated human urine is a circular economy approach wherein valuable nutrients are recovered and applied for crop growth and food production. Treating urine at the source helps in the reduction of nutrient loads on municipal wastewater treatment plants and plummeting the dependency on mined phosphorus through resource recovery strategies. Systems for separation of urine at source are strongly recommended where nutrients are recovered effectively closer to the source. This paper reviews the (i) significance and opportunities of closed loop sanitation systems, (ii) technical challenges of separating urine at source followed by its collection and storage, (iii) challenges in growth of crops and food production through direct/indirect application of urine to agriculture and (iv) existing and upcoming technologies in the recovery of nutrients, including their limitations. The review, while highlighting the scope of source-separated urine as an untapped resource for nutrient recovery, also identifies the barriers and challenges that must be addressed to enable large scale implementation of such systems.

Graphical abstract