Peri-mortem cranial trauma: implications for violent deaths at the Faraoskop rock shelter

Evidence of violence has been documented previously in the late Holocene foraging communities of the south-western Cape of South Africa, but never suggested as a group attack by adversaries. Here we report on what appears to be a single violent event involving several individuals buried at the Faraoskop rock shelter. The human skeletal remains were reassessed for commingled parts and were re-assembled as individuals. Particular focus was placed on sex, age and osteological changes. The results show that the estimated number of individuals is 12 and not 14 as reported previously. Their preservation and completeness vary; eight have crania and four are without. Six individuals (50%) show peri-mortem fractures produced by localised blunt-force trauma to the skull or mandible; the particulars of the instruments remain unknown. No post-cranial remains show injuries. Five individuals with trauma are male and one is of unknown sex. With the exception of one, all fractures occur on the left side of the skull, which suggests that they were sustained through intentional rather than accidental action. Given that these traumas were most likely fatal, the presence of multiple blows on at least one individual (FK 2) implies an intention to kill. This case adds to the developing picture of violence among late Holocene foragers, though different in its higher prevalence of trauma in males than in females as reported previously. Together, the archaeological and bio-anthropological data from Faraoskop proposes that this incident might be the result of clashing between a hunter-gatherer group and a pastoralist one.