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<p>The effect of mixed potable and wastewater (WW) irrigation on leafy vegetables cultivated in southern Tehran, Iran, was investigated in 2022. Eight species—spinach (<i>Spinacia oleracea</i>), scallion (<i>Allium fistulosum</i>), radish (<i>Raphanus sativus</i>), cress (<i>Lepidium sativum</i>), basil (<i>Ocimum basilicum</i>), purslane (<i>Portulaca oleracea</i>), cilantro (<i>Coriandrum sativum</i>), and savory (<i>Satureja hortensis</i>)—were grown in calcareous loamy soil under greenhouse conditions using five irrigation regimes (0%, 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100% WW) applied every 2&#xa0;days. Soil salinity, DTPA-extractable Co, Cu, Ni, and Zn, plant growth traits, and health risk indices—transfer factor (TF), bioaccumulation factor (BAF), average daily dietary intake (ADD), hazard quotient (HQ), and cancer risk (CR)—were determined for children and adults. Heavy metal (HM) accumulation differed significantly among wastewater levels and plant species (<i>p</i> &lt; 0.05). While low WW levels (≤ 50%) enhanced plant growth parameters, higher application rates sharply increased soil salinity (up to 6.5&#xa0;dS&#xa0;m⁻1) and DTPA-extractable Co, Cu, Ni, and Zn. Zn and Cu were retained mainly in roots, whereas Ni and Co were more readily translocated to shoots, especially at 50–75% WW. Radish exhibited the highest TF, particularly for Zn and Ni. Children showed 2.8–3.1 times higher ADD and HQ values than adults, indicating greater vulnerability. The CR for Ni exceeded the 10⁻4 threshold, particularly in radish and scallion. BAF values exceeded 1 in all vegetables except radish, following the order Cu &gt; Zn &gt; Ni &gt; Co. These findings suggest that strategic substitution of WW with potable water can sustain yields while limiting HM risks, guiding safe irrigation strategies in semi-arid urban agriculture.</p>

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Heavy Metal Accumulation and Health Risks in Selected Leafy Vegetables Irrigated with Mixed Potable and Wastewater—A Case Study: Southern Tehran, Iran

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2025年9月8日

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  • Mahdieh Sheikhi,
  • Amir Bostani

摘要

The effect of mixed potable and wastewater (WW) irrigation on leafy vegetables cultivated in southern Tehran, Iran, was investigated in 2022. Eight species—spinach (Spinacia oleracea), scallion (Allium fistulosum), radish (Raphanus sativus), cress (Lepidium sativum), basil (Ocimum basilicum), purslane (Portulaca oleracea), cilantro (Coriandrum sativum), and savory (Satureja hortensis)—were grown in calcareous loamy soil under greenhouse conditions using five irrigation regimes (0%, 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100% WW) applied every 2 days. Soil salinity, DTPA-extractable Co, Cu, Ni, and Zn, plant growth traits, and health risk indices—transfer factor (TF), bioaccumulation factor (BAF), average daily dietary intake (ADD), hazard quotient (HQ), and cancer risk (CR)—were determined for children and adults. Heavy metal (HM) accumulation differed significantly among wastewater levels and plant species (p < 0.05). While low WW levels (≤ 50%) enhanced plant growth parameters, higher application rates sharply increased soil salinity (up to 6.5 dS m⁻1) and DTPA-extractable Co, Cu, Ni, and Zn. Zn and Cu were retained mainly in roots, whereas Ni and Co were more readily translocated to shoots, especially at 50–75% WW. Radish exhibited the highest TF, particularly for Zn and Ni. Children showed 2.8–3.1 times higher ADD and HQ values than adults, indicating greater vulnerability. The CR for Ni exceeded the 10⁻4 threshold, particularly in radish and scallion. BAF values exceeded 1 in all vegetables except radish, following the order Cu > Zn > Ni > Co. These findings suggest that strategic substitution of WW with potable water can sustain yields while limiting HM risks, guiding safe irrigation strategies in semi-arid urban agriculture.