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<p>Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) and trace metals frequently co-occur in river–estuary–coastal systems, yet their joint seasonal dynamics remain insufficiently understood in monsoon-influenced environments. This study investigated the spatio-temporal distribution of PFOA, PFOS, and nine trace metals (As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, Mn, Ni, Pb, Zn) along a river–estuary–coast continuum in northern Viet Nam. A paired-season design (dry vs. rainy) was applied across 16 sites representing freshwater, brackish, and marine waters. PFAS were quantified by LC–MS/MS (LOD 0.1–0.3&#xa0;ng/L), while metals were determined as total recoverable concentrations using AAS. Composite indices (HEI, NPI, PLI, and PFAS index) and correlation analyses were used to evaluate contamination patterns and relationships. ΣPFAS was highest in freshwater (median 32.42–35.56&#xa0;ng/L), with hotspots in inland rivers and enhanced upper-range concentrations during the rainy season. Brackish waters exhibited relatively stable ΣPFAS (~ 27&#xa0;ng/L) but showed a compositional shift toward PFOA dominance, whereas marine waters had the lowest levels (~ 9&#xa0;ng/L). Most metals were elevated in the dry season, reflecting enrichment under low-flow conditions, while Mn increased during the rainy season. Multi-index analysis identified a limited number of riverine dry-season sites as consistent multi-contaminant hotspots. Multivariate and partial correlation analyses were conducted to assess PFAS–metal relationships. Although seasonal patterns varied in direction and magnitude, most associations were not statistically significant after multiple-testing correction and were substantially attenuated after controlling for environmental variables, indicating that co-occurrence patterns are primarily governed by shared hydrological and geochemical controls rather than direct interactions.</p>

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Co-contamination of heavy metals and PFAS in surface waters across a river estuary coast continuum under monsoonal seasonality

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2026年5月22日

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  • Thi Thao Minh,
  • Dinh Nhi Bui

摘要

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) and trace metals frequently co-occur in river–estuary–coastal systems, yet their joint seasonal dynamics remain insufficiently understood in monsoon-influenced environments. This study investigated the spatio-temporal distribution of PFOA, PFOS, and nine trace metals (As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, Mn, Ni, Pb, Zn) along a river–estuary–coast continuum in northern Viet Nam. A paired-season design (dry vs. rainy) was applied across 16 sites representing freshwater, brackish, and marine waters. PFAS were quantified by LC–MS/MS (LOD 0.1–0.3 ng/L), while metals were determined as total recoverable concentrations using AAS. Composite indices (HEI, NPI, PLI, and PFAS index) and correlation analyses were used to evaluate contamination patterns and relationships. ΣPFAS was highest in freshwater (median 32.42–35.56 ng/L), with hotspots in inland rivers and enhanced upper-range concentrations during the rainy season. Brackish waters exhibited relatively stable ΣPFAS (~ 27 ng/L) but showed a compositional shift toward PFOA dominance, whereas marine waters had the lowest levels (~ 9 ng/L). Most metals were elevated in the dry season, reflecting enrichment under low-flow conditions, while Mn increased during the rainy season. Multi-index analysis identified a limited number of riverine dry-season sites as consistent multi-contaminant hotspots. Multivariate and partial correlation analyses were conducted to assess PFAS–metal relationships. Although seasonal patterns varied in direction and magnitude, most associations were not statistically significant after multiple-testing correction and were substantially attenuated after controlling for environmental variables, indicating that co-occurrence patterns are primarily governed by shared hydrological and geochemical controls rather than direct interactions.