Extraction and Enrichment of Niobium from Primary Resources via Pyrometallurgy Routes: A Review

Niobium is recognized as a crucial strategic rare metal, predominantly derived from primary resources. This paper presents a comprehensive review of the commercial and emerging pyrometallurgical technologies for the extraction and enrichment of niobium from these resources. Currently, aluminothermic reduction is the predominant method for ferroniobium production from pyrochlore concentrates and is utilized at the three major pyrochlore mines globally. Carbothermic reduction serves as a flexible alternative, enabling the production of low-grade Nb-Fe alloys and serves as an effective enrichment technique for low-grade complex niobium ores. Considerable research efforts have been dedicated to the utilization of these resources. In addition, chlorination is commercially applied for the decomposition of complex niobium–tantalum concentrates and the separation of valuable elements from ferroniobium. Among emerging routes, silicothermic reduction offers high selectivity for niobium over titanium and rare-earth elements, yet it is constrained by low product grade and silicon contamination. Hydrogen reduction provides a low-carbon pathway for selective iron removal and niobium enrichment, but is constrained by poor adaptability to raw materials. Overall, while conventional pyrometallurgical routes are industrially mature, emerging technologies present promising opportunities for low-carbon and selective niobium processing, the optimal choice depends on feedstock characteristics, economic constraints, and environmental priorities.