Balancing fire safety and sustainability: a comprehensive review of flame retardant cotton technologies

Flame-Retardant (FR) treatments for cotton fabrics play a crucial role in improving fire safety for applications in textiles, construction, and transportation. However, they face ongoing challenges in achieving high performance, durability, environmental sustainability, and regulatory compliance. This comprehensive review examines recent advancements (2023–2025) in FR technologies for cotton, highlighting key barriers such as limited wash durability, potential toxicity, and production scalability. Conventional phosphorus-based FRs often show reduced efficacy after repeated laundering, while many bio-based alternatives (e.g., chitosan or lignin coatings) require higher loadings that can affect fabric comfort and breathability. Promising innovations include nanocellulose-phosphorus hybrids with excellent wash durability, stimuli-responsive microcapsules for targeted flame suppression, and nanotechnology-driven nanocomposites (e.g., graphene-clay) that achieve high fire-resistance ratings at low loadings though commercialization is limited by cost. Nanocellulose-phosphorus hybrids with excellent wash durability (retaining 90% efficacy after 50 washes) (Bambo et al., 2024) and graphene-clay nanocomposites achieving UL-94 V-0 at 5 wt% loading with 45% reduction in peak heat release rate (Ma et al., 2023; Han et al., 2023. Stricter global regulations, including EU REACH updates and the Stockholm Convention, are driving the phase-out of halogenated FRs and promoting non-toxic, recyclable options with reduced combustion byproducts. Artificial intelligence is also accelerating the discovery of optimized formulations. Future directions emphasize hybrid bio-inorganic systems, green chemistry using waste-derived materials, and multifunctional smart FR technologies (e.g., with antimicrobial or UV protection). Supported by initiatives like the EU-funded FIRESAFE program and growing consumer demand for eco-friendly products, the field is advancing toward durable, sustainable, and comfortable FR cotton textiles. This review underscores the value of interdisciplinary collaboration to align fire safety with global environmental goals.