Cadmium-doped titanium dioxide material for electrochemical sensing of chloramphenicol in diverse real-world samples: a DFT analysis

Chloramphenicol, a widely used antibiotic for treating bacterial infections, is favored for its low cost. However, repeated use of this antibiotic can lead to adverse effects. To address this concern and detect the presence of chloramphenicol, we have developed a novel electrochemical sensor using Cd-doped TiO₂ as the sensing material for the detection of the nitroaromatic contaminant chloramphenicol (CAP). Cd-doped TiO₂ was synthesized using a sol–gel method, followed by a hydrothermal process at 450 °C to obtain the final sensor material. The sensor material underwent comprehensive characterization, including XRD, FT-IR, HR-TEM, and EIS. To evaluate its detection capabilities, CV and LSV techniques were employed, yielding impressive results with a remarkably low detection limit of 3.5 nM and a linear concentration range from 1 to 25 µM. Real sample analysis was performed using various samples, such as honey and coconut water. Additionally, DFT studies were conducted to analyze the HOMO–LUMO of CAP and electrostatic potential. The results obtained were highly accurate, making this sensor material a promising candidate for the detection of CAP in real-world applications.