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<p>Three-dimensional food printing (3DFP) is an emerging technology capable of producing personalized foods with customized shapes, textures, and nutritional compositions. However, the development of food-ink formulations remains a major challenge for improving printability and nutritional quality. This study developed a soy protein isolate (SPI)-based food ink containing tempeh flour, konjac glucomannan (KGM), and gelatin, and evaluated the effects of different tempeh flour concentrations on food-ink viscosity and the physicochemical properties of 3D-printed products. Food-ink viscosity, shape fidelity, texture profile, and water content were evaluated, while rheological and proximate analyses were subsequently performed on the formulation exhibiting the highest total printing precision. Increasing tempeh flour concentration significantly increased food-ink viscosity (110–270 dPa·s), product mass (4.44–5.46 g), total printing precision (97.71–99.13%), hardness (8523.42–12738.23 g), and gumminess (6549.90–9828.72 N), while decreasing water content from 61.70% to 58.55%. The formulation containing 14% tempeh flour achieved the highest total printing precision (99.13%) and was therefore selected for further characterization. Rheological analysis showed a yield stress of 39.044 Pa, a plastic viscosity of 513 mPa·s, a flow behavior index (n) of 0.5158, and a consistency index (K) of 21.2442 Pa·s<InlineEquation ID="IEq1"> <EquationSource Format="TEX">\(^{\text {n}}\)</EquationSource> </InlineEquation>, confirming desirable pseudoplastic behavior for extrusion-based 3D food printing. Proximate analysis of the selected formulation revealed 25.92% protein, 11.04% carbohydrate, 2.21% fat, 60.11% moisture, and 0.72% ash. These findings demonstrate that incorporating tempeh flour into SPI–KGM–gelatin food inks can improve printability while providing a high-protein formulation suitable for extrusion-based 3D food printing.</p>

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Effect of Tempeh Flour on Food-ink Viscosity and Physicochemical Properties of Konjac–Gelatin Protein-Based 3D-Printed Products

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2026年7月24日

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  • Shannon Amanda Joelle,
  • Ignatius Srianta,
  • Netty Kusumawati,
  • Ira Nugerahani,
  • Susana Ristiarini,
  • Chatarina Yayuk Trisnawati,
  • Takuya Sugahara

摘要

Three-dimensional food printing (3DFP) is an emerging technology capable of producing personalized foods with customized shapes, textures, and nutritional compositions. However, the development of food-ink formulations remains a major challenge for improving printability and nutritional quality. This study developed a soy protein isolate (SPI)-based food ink containing tempeh flour, konjac glucomannan (KGM), and gelatin, and evaluated the effects of different tempeh flour concentrations on food-ink viscosity and the physicochemical properties of 3D-printed products. Food-ink viscosity, shape fidelity, texture profile, and water content were evaluated, while rheological and proximate analyses were subsequently performed on the formulation exhibiting the highest total printing precision. Increasing tempeh flour concentration significantly increased food-ink viscosity (110–270 dPa·s), product mass (4.44–5.46 g), total printing precision (97.71–99.13%), hardness (8523.42–12738.23 g), and gumminess (6549.90–9828.72 N), while decreasing water content from 61.70% to 58.55%. The formulation containing 14% tempeh flour achieved the highest total printing precision (99.13%) and was therefore selected for further characterization. Rheological analysis showed a yield stress of 39.044 Pa, a plastic viscosity of 513 mPa·s, a flow behavior index (n) of 0.5158, and a consistency index (K) of 21.2442 Pa·s \(^{\text {n}}\) , confirming desirable pseudoplastic behavior for extrusion-based 3D food printing. Proximate analysis of the selected formulation revealed 25.92% protein, 11.04% carbohydrate, 2.21% fat, 60.11% moisture, and 0.72% ash. These findings demonstrate that incorporating tempeh flour into SPI–KGM–gelatin food inks can improve printability while providing a high-protein formulation suitable for extrusion-based 3D food printing.