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<p>Virtual reality (VR) has become an important tool in vocational education, particularly for supporting procedural rehearsal, real-time feedback, and safe skill practice. Although prior studies have explored the combination of VR and hands-on training, less is known about how these modalities should be systematically integrated within an instructional model to support both learning and sustained skill transfer. To address this gap, this study proposes a dual empowerment (DE) framework that integrates VR-based cognitive precision with authentic physical practice within a staged instructional architecture.</p><p>A five-stage welding training program was implemented with 216 learners, combining real-time performance feedback, visualized learning traces, and structured VR–hands-on transitions. Using an explanatory mixed-methods design, structural mediation modeling examined cross-sectional pathways at post-instruction, while a three-wave cross-lagged panel model investigated the longitudinal relationship between learning outcomes (LO) and skill transfer/retention (STR). Qualitative interviews and reflective journals were used to interpret and elaborate learners’ psychological adaptation processes across training stages.</p><p>The results indicate that instructional quality dimensions were positively associated with DE, which in turn was associated with affective, motivational, and cognitive mediating processes that predicted both LO and STR. Longitudinal findings further revealed a bidirectional but developmentally asymmetrical relationship between LO and STR, in which prior learning outcomes exerted a stronger forward influence on later skill transfer than the reverse pathway, after accounting for temporal stability. These findings suggest that immersive–physical integration supports a staged developmental process characterized by developmentally asymmetrical LO–STR coupling.</p><p>The study contributes to immersive learning research by positioning DE as a developmental instructional design framework rather than a simple technology-enhanced training format. Practically, it offers a transferable design model for skill-intensive domains, highlighting that sustainable transfer depends on structured integration between immersive rehearsal and authentic practice rather than on technological immersion alone.</p>

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Dual empowerment in VR-based technical training: longitudinal evidence of developmental dynamics in learning outcomes and skill transfer

  • 期刊论文

  • 出版模式：

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  • 发表日期：

    2026年6月22日

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  • Min Jou,
  • Yungwei Hao

摘要

Virtual reality (VR) has become an important tool in vocational education, particularly for supporting procedural rehearsal, real-time feedback, and safe skill practice. Although prior studies have explored the combination of VR and hands-on training, less is known about how these modalities should be systematically integrated within an instructional model to support both learning and sustained skill transfer. To address this gap, this study proposes a dual empowerment (DE) framework that integrates VR-based cognitive precision with authentic physical practice within a staged instructional architecture.

A five-stage welding training program was implemented with 216 learners, combining real-time performance feedback, visualized learning traces, and structured VR–hands-on transitions. Using an explanatory mixed-methods design, structural mediation modeling examined cross-sectional pathways at post-instruction, while a three-wave cross-lagged panel model investigated the longitudinal relationship between learning outcomes (LO) and skill transfer/retention (STR). Qualitative interviews and reflective journals were used to interpret and elaborate learners’ psychological adaptation processes across training stages.

The results indicate that instructional quality dimensions were positively associated with DE, which in turn was associated with affective, motivational, and cognitive mediating processes that predicted both LO and STR. Longitudinal findings further revealed a bidirectional but developmentally asymmetrical relationship between LO and STR, in which prior learning outcomes exerted a stronger forward influence on later skill transfer than the reverse pathway, after accounting for temporal stability. These findings suggest that immersive–physical integration supports a staged developmental process characterized by developmentally asymmetrical LO–STR coupling.

The study contributes to immersive learning research by positioning DE as a developmental instructional design framework rather than a simple technology-enhanced training format. Practically, it offers a transferable design model for skill-intensive domains, highlighting that sustainable transfer depends on structured integration between immersive rehearsal and authentic practice rather than on technological immersion alone.