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<p>High-dimensional feature spaces in malware classification pose significant challenges for machine learning performance. To address these challenges, this paper presents a comparative evaluation of four dimensionality-reduction techniques–Principal Component Analysis (PCA), Linear Discriminant Analysis (LDA), Uniform Manifold Approximation and Projection (UMAP), and Autoencoder-based reduction–applied to opcode-frequency representations of malware. Using a corpus comprising 82,569 samples and 1796 opcodes, we analyze the effect of each reduction method across multiple target dimensions and two classifier architectures: Extreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost) and a three-layer Multilayer Perceptron (MLP). Results show that LDA achieves strong separability at lower dimensions, while PCA performs best at higher dimensions where variance preservation is critical. Autoencoder-based reduction provides consistently high accuracy with compact representations, whereas UMAP exhibits limited benefits for tabular opcode data. The findings highlight trade-offs between linear and non-linear reduction strategies and provide guidance for selecting efficient feature compression methods in large-scale malware analysis.</p>

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A comparative study of linear and non-linear dimensionality reduction for opcode-frequency malware classification

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2026年1月28日

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  • Chandler Lu,
  • Fabio Di Troia

摘要

High-dimensional feature spaces in malware classification pose significant challenges for machine learning performance. To address these challenges, this paper presents a comparative evaluation of four dimensionality-reduction techniques–Principal Component Analysis (PCA), Linear Discriminant Analysis (LDA), Uniform Manifold Approximation and Projection (UMAP), and Autoencoder-based reduction–applied to opcode-frequency representations of malware. Using a corpus comprising 82,569 samples and 1796 opcodes, we analyze the effect of each reduction method across multiple target dimensions and two classifier architectures: Extreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost) and a three-layer Multilayer Perceptron (MLP). Results show that LDA achieves strong separability at lower dimensions, while PCA performs best at higher dimensions where variance preservation is critical. Autoencoder-based reduction provides consistently high accuracy with compact representations, whereas UMAP exhibits limited benefits for tabular opcode data. The findings highlight trade-offs between linear and non-linear reduction strategies and provide guidance for selecting efficient feature compression methods in large-scale malware analysis.