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<p>Learning independently involves not only cognitive but also emotional, motivational, and metacognitive challenges, particularly for children still developing their self-regulated learning skills. Consequently, children’s learning experiences can fluctuate rapidly within one learning activity, and assessing these experiences without disrupting learning remains an important research aim. In the present study, the feasibility of unobtrusively collecting two forms of trace data—pen pressure and facial expressions—from young learners in authentic classroom contexts was investigated, and the validity of the resulting indicators was tested. Data was analysed from two classroom studies with over 580 third- and fourth-grade children in Germany, who learned mathematics content in a tablet-based digital learning environment using digital pens and integrated webcams. Pen pressure was recorded in three phases of the learning task, facial expressions following feedback were coded for valence, and linear mixed-effects models tested how these indicators varied with item accuracy and difficulty. Mean and variance in pen pressure increased with item difficulty and after positive feedback, suggesting pen pressure indicators reflect both cognitive load and arousal. More varied pen pressure on difficult items that were answered incorrectly may reflect the metacognitive experience of uncertainty. Children’s facial expressions were rated more positively after positive feedback than error feedback and when they self-reported higher valence, while nuanced effects of item difficulty pointed to attributional processes shaping children’s emotional reactions. Overall, the findings demonstrate that pen pressure and facial expressions can be collected unobtrusively in real classroom contexts and provide valuable insights into young learners’ experiences.</p>

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Tracing the learning experience in a digital learning environment: Insights from pen pressure and facial expressions in primary school children

  • 期刊论文

  • 出版模式：

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  • 发表日期：

    2026年7月2日

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  • Donna Bryce,
  • Jana Spear,
  • Cara-Sophie Enste,
  • Robert Grassinger,
  • Markus Dresel

摘要

Learning independently involves not only cognitive but also emotional, motivational, and metacognitive challenges, particularly for children still developing their self-regulated learning skills. Consequently, children’s learning experiences can fluctuate rapidly within one learning activity, and assessing these experiences without disrupting learning remains an important research aim. In the present study, the feasibility of unobtrusively collecting two forms of trace data—pen pressure and facial expressions—from young learners in authentic classroom contexts was investigated, and the validity of the resulting indicators was tested. Data was analysed from two classroom studies with over 580 third- and fourth-grade children in Germany, who learned mathematics content in a tablet-based digital learning environment using digital pens and integrated webcams. Pen pressure was recorded in three phases of the learning task, facial expressions following feedback were coded for valence, and linear mixed-effects models tested how these indicators varied with item accuracy and difficulty. Mean and variance in pen pressure increased with item difficulty and after positive feedback, suggesting pen pressure indicators reflect both cognitive load and arousal. More varied pen pressure on difficult items that were answered incorrectly may reflect the metacognitive experience of uncertainty. Children’s facial expressions were rated more positively after positive feedback than error feedback and when they self-reported higher valence, while nuanced effects of item difficulty pointed to attributional processes shaping children’s emotional reactions. Overall, the findings demonstrate that pen pressure and facial expressions can be collected unobtrusively in real classroom contexts and provide valuable insights into young learners’ experiences.