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Purpose <p>The rising global demand for vegetables has expanded their production through both conventional and non-conventional systems, reinforcing their contribution to food security while simultaneously intensifying environmental pressures. Jalapeño pepper (<i>Capsicum annuum L</i>.), a crop of high economic importance, represents a relevant case study for assessing these trade-offs. This study presents a comparative attributional Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of conventional open-field cultivation and controlled-environment aeroponic production systems in México.</p> Methods <p>A comparative life cycle assessment (LCA) was carried out in accordance with ISO 14040/44 guidelines, using the ReCiPe 2016 methodology at midpoint and end point level. The functional unit was defined as 1&#xa0;kg of fresh jalapeño pepper. Inventory data for conventional cultivation were obtained from technical field reports, while aeroponic data were collected directly from measurements in an experimental aeroponic chamber. The system boundaries included upstream processes related to raw material and energy inputs. Emissions to soil, air, and water were estimated using emission factors reported by various authors and methodologies, including IPCC guidelines, EMEP, and GREET.</p> Results and discussion <p>Aeroponics exhibited greater environmental burdens in most indicators, with a carbon footprint more than ten times higher (6.11 vs. 0.56&#xa0;kg CO<sub>2</sub> eq./kg) and a fossil resource use fourteen times higher (1.90 vs. 0.14&#xa0;kg oil eq./kg). However, the lower aeroponic impact compared to open-field farming in land use (7.23 × 10<sup>− 03</sup> vs. 5.41 × 10<sup>− 02</sup> m²⋅a/kg) and freshwater eutrophication (1.61 × 10<sup>− 04</sup> vs. 2.45 × 10<sup>− 04</sup> kg P eq./kg) suggest specific mitigation opportunities. Comparisons with other vegetable production systems show that aeroponics and greenhouses generally display elevated carbon footprints per kg, strongly influenced by energy dependence. In Mexico, this is exacerbated by an electricity matrix dominated by fossil fuels, which amplifies upstream burdens. A scenario-based uncertainty analysis confirmed that although absolute impacts varied with alternative electricity mixes, the structural dominance of electricity in the aeroponic system remained consistent across scenarios. These findings highlight that yield improvements, energy efficiency, and renewable integration are crucial to enhance environmental performance.</p> Conclusions <p>This study demonstrates that the sustainability of advanced agricultural systems such as aeroponics critically depends on agronomic efficiency and the energy profile of the electricity grid. In contexts where fossil fuels dominate power generation, aeroponics may shift environmental impacts upstream, limiting its overall competitiveness. These findings provide key insights for designing resilient, scalable, and environmentally viable non-conventional agricultural systems on a global scale.</p>

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Environmental assessment of jalapeño pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) cultivation using the LCA methodology: comparison between conventional open field and aeroponic production

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2026年3月30日

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  • Cristal Yoselin Moreno-Aguilera,
  • José Ramón Castellanos-Castro,
  • José Enrique Botello-Álvarez,
  • Coral Martínez-Nolasco,
  • Roberto Carlos Salmorán-Salgado,
  • Juan José Martínez-Nolasco

摘要

Purpose

The rising global demand for vegetables has expanded their production through both conventional and non-conventional systems, reinforcing their contribution to food security while simultaneously intensifying environmental pressures. Jalapeño pepper (Capsicum annuum L.), a crop of high economic importance, represents a relevant case study for assessing these trade-offs. This study presents a comparative attributional Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of conventional open-field cultivation and controlled-environment aeroponic production systems in México.

Methods

A comparative life cycle assessment (LCA) was carried out in accordance with ISO 14040/44 guidelines, using the ReCiPe 2016 methodology at midpoint and end point level. The functional unit was defined as 1 kg of fresh jalapeño pepper. Inventory data for conventional cultivation were obtained from technical field reports, while aeroponic data were collected directly from measurements in an experimental aeroponic chamber. The system boundaries included upstream processes related to raw material and energy inputs. Emissions to soil, air, and water were estimated using emission factors reported by various authors and methodologies, including IPCC guidelines, EMEP, and GREET.

Results and discussion

Aeroponics exhibited greater environmental burdens in most indicators, with a carbon footprint more than ten times higher (6.11 vs. 0.56 kg CO2 eq./kg) and a fossil resource use fourteen times higher (1.90 vs. 0.14 kg oil eq./kg). However, the lower aeroponic impact compared to open-field farming in land use (7.23 × 10− 03 vs. 5.41 × 10− 02 m²⋅a/kg) and freshwater eutrophication (1.61 × 10− 04 vs. 2.45 × 10− 04 kg P eq./kg) suggest specific mitigation opportunities. Comparisons with other vegetable production systems show that aeroponics and greenhouses generally display elevated carbon footprints per kg, strongly influenced by energy dependence. In Mexico, this is exacerbated by an electricity matrix dominated by fossil fuels, which amplifies upstream burdens. A scenario-based uncertainty analysis confirmed that although absolute impacts varied with alternative electricity mixes, the structural dominance of electricity in the aeroponic system remained consistent across scenarios. These findings highlight that yield improvements, energy efficiency, and renewable integration are crucial to enhance environmental performance.

Conclusions

This study demonstrates that the sustainability of advanced agricultural systems such as aeroponics critically depends on agronomic efficiency and the energy profile of the electricity grid. In contexts where fossil fuels dominate power generation, aeroponics may shift environmental impacts upstream, limiting its overall competitiveness. These findings provide key insights for designing resilient, scalable, and environmentally viable non-conventional agricultural systems on a global scale.