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<p>The COVID-19 pandemic disrupted early literacy instruction, with potentially lasting effects on foundational skills development. This study examined how pandemic-related kindergarten disruptions impacted first-grade literacy outcomes, with particular attention to students classified as English Learners (ELs) and socioeconomic factors. We compared two cohorts of first graders in California: students who experienced virtual kindergarten during the COVID-19 pandemic (Cohort K2020, <i>n =</i> 1237) versus those who attended in-person kindergarten the following year (Cohort K2021, <i>n =</i> 1392). Using linear mixed-effects models, we analyzed performance on oral language and word reading accuracy across cohorts. For both tasks, results revealed that ELs consistently performed below English-only peers across both cohorts, but the achievement gap in oral language was larger among students who experienced virtual kindergarten (Cohen’s <i>d </i>= − 1.12) compared to those with in-person instruction (Cohen’s <i>d</i> = − 0.70). School socioeconomic status moderated these results; schools with lower SES were more impacted bypandemic-related disruptions. Word reading showed more limited cohort differences, emerging primarily among students in lower-SES schools. These findings demonstrate that pandemic-related instructional disruptions had unequal and persistent effects on early language and literacy development, with oral language skills more severely affected than word reading accuracy. The results highlight the critical need for targeted interventions, particularly for ELs and students in lower-resource contexts.</p>

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Differential impact of pandemic-era kindergarten on oral language and early literacy in first grade

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2026年3月14日

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  • Nuria Gutiérrez,
  • Julian M. Siebert,
  • Mónica Zegers,
  • Hugh Catts,
  • Yaacov Petscher,
  • Maria Luisa Gorno-Tempini

摘要

The COVID-19 pandemic disrupted early literacy instruction, with potentially lasting effects on foundational skills development. This study examined how pandemic-related kindergarten disruptions impacted first-grade literacy outcomes, with particular attention to students classified as English Learners (ELs) and socioeconomic factors. We compared two cohorts of first graders in California: students who experienced virtual kindergarten during the COVID-19 pandemic (Cohort K2020, n = 1237) versus those who attended in-person kindergarten the following year (Cohort K2021, n = 1392). Using linear mixed-effects models, we analyzed performance on oral language and word reading accuracy across cohorts. For both tasks, results revealed that ELs consistently performed below English-only peers across both cohorts, but the achievement gap in oral language was larger among students who experienced virtual kindergarten (Cohen’s d = − 1.12) compared to those with in-person instruction (Cohen’s d = − 0.70). School socioeconomic status moderated these results; schools with lower SES were more impacted bypandemic-related disruptions. Word reading showed more limited cohort differences, emerging primarily among students in lower-SES schools. These findings demonstrate that pandemic-related instructional disruptions had unequal and persistent effects on early language and literacy development, with oral language skills more severely affected than word reading accuracy. The results highlight the critical need for targeted interventions, particularly for ELs and students in lower-resource contexts.