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<p>This article investigates the structural determinants of reading achievement in Morocco using PISA 2018 data, addressing the research question of which student- and school-level factors drive inequalities in reading performance once endogeneity and between-school heterogeneity are explicitly accounted for. To this end, we employ a multilevel Hausman–Taylor estimator, which corrects for partial endogeneity in key individual and institutional characteristics while exploiting the hierarchical structure of the data. The robustness of the model is confirmed by a highly significant Wald test (χ<sup>2</sup> = 839.54, <i>p</i> &lt; 0.001), and substantial between-school heterogeneity is observed, highlighting the strong influence of institutional and contextual factors on student outcomes. The results reveal that grade repetition is the most detrimental factor, associated with an average loss of 28.2 points in reading performance (<i>p</i> &lt; 0.001), confirming its structural inefficiency within the Moroccan education system. In contrast, access to digital resources at home significantly improves achievement (+ 9.1 points, <i>p</i> &lt; 0.001), as does students’ sense of belonging at school (+ 8.7 points, <i>p</i> &lt; 0.001). Persistent gender disparities are also evident, with boys scoring on average 7.5 points lower than girls (<i>p</i> &lt; 0.001). Furthermore, shortages of qualified teachers represent a major constraint on learning outcomes, with economically substantial negative effects. Overall, the findings suggest that apparent equity in the Moroccan education system masks a generalized low-performance equilibrium driven by institutional and contextual factors. The policy implications emphasize the urgent need to reduce grade repetition, enhance teacher training and deployment, improve school climate, and promote equitable access to digital resources, all of which are crucial to sustainably reducing educational inequalities and improving learning outcomes for all students.</p>

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Toward inclusive and effective learning in Africa: structural determinants of reading performance in Morocco

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2026年5月28日

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  • Loubna Derboun,
  • Mariem Liouaeddine,
  • Mohammed Bijou

摘要

This article investigates the structural determinants of reading achievement in Morocco using PISA 2018 data, addressing the research question of which student- and school-level factors drive inequalities in reading performance once endogeneity and between-school heterogeneity are explicitly accounted for. To this end, we employ a multilevel Hausman–Taylor estimator, which corrects for partial endogeneity in key individual and institutional characteristics while exploiting the hierarchical structure of the data. The robustness of the model is confirmed by a highly significant Wald test (χ2 = 839.54, p < 0.001), and substantial between-school heterogeneity is observed, highlighting the strong influence of institutional and contextual factors on student outcomes. The results reveal that grade repetition is the most detrimental factor, associated with an average loss of 28.2 points in reading performance (p < 0.001), confirming its structural inefficiency within the Moroccan education system. In contrast, access to digital resources at home significantly improves achievement (+ 9.1 points, p < 0.001), as does students’ sense of belonging at school (+ 8.7 points, p < 0.001). Persistent gender disparities are also evident, with boys scoring on average 7.5 points lower than girls (p < 0.001). Furthermore, shortages of qualified teachers represent a major constraint on learning outcomes, with economically substantial negative effects. Overall, the findings suggest that apparent equity in the Moroccan education system masks a generalized low-performance equilibrium driven by institutional and contextual factors. The policy implications emphasize the urgent need to reduce grade repetition, enhance teacher training and deployment, improve school climate, and promote equitable access to digital resources, all of which are crucial to sustainably reducing educational inequalities and improving learning outcomes for all students.