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<p>Antimicrobial resistance is a rapidly escalating global health threat driven by multidrug-resistant, extensively drug-resistant, and pandrug-resistant pathogens that increasingly undermine the effectiveness of conventional antibiotics. This crisis has intensified the search for alternative antibacterial strategies capable of multi-target activity with reduced resistance selection pressure. In this context, plant-derived phytochemicals and green-synthesized carbon dots (PCDs) have independently emerged as promising antibacterial agents with sustainability advantages. Phytochemicals act primarily through biologically mediated mechanisms, including membrane destabilization, enzyme inhibition, quorum-sensing interference, and virulence attenuation, whereas PCDs rely on engineered physicochemical and photophysical processes such as surface charge–mediated membrane interactions, nanoscale disruption, and externally tunable reactive oxygen species generation. Despite encouraging in vitro and early preclinical outcomes, both approaches face significant translational barriers, including chemical instability, limited bioavailability, toxicity concerns, batch-to-batch variability, scalability challenges, and regulatory uncertainty. This review critically integrates recent advances in phytochemicals, biomass-derived PCDs, and emerging phytochemical-PCD hybrid systems within a unified, mechanism-driven framework. Emphasis is placed on mechanistic differentiation, comparative evaluation of antibacterial performance, and the strength of resistance-suppression claims rather than reiteration of established pathways. Hybrid phytochemical-PCD systems are highlighted as a promising yet predominantly preclinical strategy that may enhance efficacy and biofilm penetration while introducing new challenges related to nanosafety, pharmacokinetics, reproducibility, and regulatory approval. Overall, this review underscores the need for standardized evaluation protocols and translationally focused research to bridge laboratory findings and clinical application.</p> Graphical abstract <p></p>

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Sustainable solutions to antibiotic resistance: a comprehensive review of plant-derived carbon dots and phytochemicals as innovative antibacterial agents

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2026年3月24日

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  • Sewara J. Mohammed,
  • Awat S. Mohammed,
  • Dlzar D. Ghafoor,
  • Hastyar H. Najmuldeen,
  • Aya I. Tamar,
  • Danyar D. Jalal,
  • Fayez Alghofaili,
  • Dana A. Kader,
  • Rebaz F. Hamarawf,
  • Kawan F. Kayani

摘要

Antimicrobial resistance is a rapidly escalating global health threat driven by multidrug-resistant, extensively drug-resistant, and pandrug-resistant pathogens that increasingly undermine the effectiveness of conventional antibiotics. This crisis has intensified the search for alternative antibacterial strategies capable of multi-target activity with reduced resistance selection pressure. In this context, plant-derived phytochemicals and green-synthesized carbon dots (PCDs) have independently emerged as promising antibacterial agents with sustainability advantages. Phytochemicals act primarily through biologically mediated mechanisms, including membrane destabilization, enzyme inhibition, quorum-sensing interference, and virulence attenuation, whereas PCDs rely on engineered physicochemical and photophysical processes such as surface charge–mediated membrane interactions, nanoscale disruption, and externally tunable reactive oxygen species generation. Despite encouraging in vitro and early preclinical outcomes, both approaches face significant translational barriers, including chemical instability, limited bioavailability, toxicity concerns, batch-to-batch variability, scalability challenges, and regulatory uncertainty. This review critically integrates recent advances in phytochemicals, biomass-derived PCDs, and emerging phytochemical-PCD hybrid systems within a unified, mechanism-driven framework. Emphasis is placed on mechanistic differentiation, comparative evaluation of antibacterial performance, and the strength of resistance-suppression claims rather than reiteration of established pathways. Hybrid phytochemical-PCD systems are highlighted as a promising yet predominantly preclinical strategy that may enhance efficacy and biofilm penetration while introducing new challenges related to nanosafety, pharmacokinetics, reproducibility, and regulatory approval. Overall, this review underscores the need for standardized evaluation protocols and translationally focused research to bridge laboratory findings and clinical application.

Graphical abstract