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<p>This study presents a detailed numerical investigation of a 5 × 5 lithium-ion battery pack cooled by a hybrid thermal management system that combines air convection, nanofluid circulation, and phase change materials (PCM). The cells are embedded in PCM, while U-shaped tubes filled with nanofluid and air traverse the PCM to enhance heat exchange. The governing equations for slow and conjugate heat transfer are solved using the finite element method. The results reveal strong dependencies between tube diameter, nanofluid velocity, PCM melting rate, and the thermal response of the battery pack. Smaller tubes with higher flow velocity absorb more heat from the PCM and cells, leading to up to 3% higher nanofluid outlet temperatures compared with the largest tube. These tubes also accelerate PCM melting, achieving up to 54% faster melt fractions during the early heating phase. In contrast, larger tube diameters reduce heat absorption and delay PCM melting but retain up to 14% more liquid PCM during long-term cooling. Increasing nanofluid velocity raises the outlet temperature by 0.5–0.7%, reflecting greater energy transport, while the battery temperature remains nearly unchanged due to the stabilizing effect of PCM. Faster flow also reduces PCM melting by approximately 4%, yet delays solidification by about 2.2% in the cooling stage.</p>

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Numerical study of hybrid nanofluid–phase change material system for thermal management of lithium battery packs: effects of nanofluid carrier size

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2026年2月2日

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  • As’ad Alizadeh,
  • Khalil Hajlaoui,
  • Waqid Al-Mussawi,
  • Mohamed Shaban,
  • Abdullah Abed Hussein,
  • Abdellatif M. Sadeq,
  • Husam Rajab,
  • Joy Djuansjah

摘要

This study presents a detailed numerical investigation of a 5 × 5 lithium-ion battery pack cooled by a hybrid thermal management system that combines air convection, nanofluid circulation, and phase change materials (PCM). The cells are embedded in PCM, while U-shaped tubes filled with nanofluid and air traverse the PCM to enhance heat exchange. The governing equations for slow and conjugate heat transfer are solved using the finite element method. The results reveal strong dependencies between tube diameter, nanofluid velocity, PCM melting rate, and the thermal response of the battery pack. Smaller tubes with higher flow velocity absorb more heat from the PCM and cells, leading to up to 3% higher nanofluid outlet temperatures compared with the largest tube. These tubes also accelerate PCM melting, achieving up to 54% faster melt fractions during the early heating phase. In contrast, larger tube diameters reduce heat absorption and delay PCM melting but retain up to 14% more liquid PCM during long-term cooling. Increasing nanofluid velocity raises the outlet temperature by 0.5–0.7%, reflecting greater energy transport, while the battery temperature remains nearly unchanged due to the stabilizing effect of PCM. Faster flow also reduces PCM melting by approximately 4%, yet delays solidification by about 2.2% in the cooling stage.