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<p>This study presents the development and optimization of humic acid/polyvinyl alcohol (HA/PVA) supramolecular hydrogels via the Taguchi method and cyclic freeze–thaw processing. Humic acid was extracted from spent coffee grounds and incorporated into a polyvinyl alcohol matrix to fabricate physically crosslinked hydrogels. The structural, mechanical, and biological properties of these hydrogels were systematically evaluated, focusing on key formulation parameters such as HDOM (humic dissolved organic matter) concentration, crosslinker dosage, and freeze–drying cycles. The results revealed that the number of freeze–thaw cycles was the most influential factor in enhancing mechanical strength, while optimal HA content significantly improved compressive stress by ~ 40%. Scanning electron microscopy confirmed the formation of a porous network favorable for nutrient diffusion and cellular attachment. In vitro assays confirmed excellent cytocompatibility, with extract dilutions (25–75%) significantly enhancing fibroblast proliferation and migration compared to control. The wound healing assay further demonstrated accelerated scratch closure most notably in the 75% group highlighting the hydrogel’s strong pro-migratory effect and its promising potential for soft tissue regeneration. The combination of structural integrity, biocompatibility, and tunable bioactivity positions these HA/PVA hydrogels as promising materials for wound healing and tissue engineering applications.</p>

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Optimization of freeze–thawed humic acid/polyvinyl alcohol supramolecular hydrogels via Taguchi method: structural, mechanical, and biological evaluations

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2026年1月8日

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  • Yao-En Cai,
  • Yu-Hsien Huang,
  • Ke-Hung Tsui,
  • Andrew E.-Y. Chuang,
  • Shu-Fang Huang,
  • Kuan-Ting Lee,
  • Yi-Hsuan Lin

摘要

This study presents the development and optimization of humic acid/polyvinyl alcohol (HA/PVA) supramolecular hydrogels via the Taguchi method and cyclic freeze–thaw processing. Humic acid was extracted from spent coffee grounds and incorporated into a polyvinyl alcohol matrix to fabricate physically crosslinked hydrogels. The structural, mechanical, and biological properties of these hydrogels were systematically evaluated, focusing on key formulation parameters such as HDOM (humic dissolved organic matter) concentration, crosslinker dosage, and freeze–drying cycles. The results revealed that the number of freeze–thaw cycles was the most influential factor in enhancing mechanical strength, while optimal HA content significantly improved compressive stress by ~ 40%. Scanning electron microscopy confirmed the formation of a porous network favorable for nutrient diffusion and cellular attachment. In vitro assays confirmed excellent cytocompatibility, with extract dilutions (25–75%) significantly enhancing fibroblast proliferation and migration compared to control. The wound healing assay further demonstrated accelerated scratch closure most notably in the 75% group highlighting the hydrogel’s strong pro-migratory effect and its promising potential for soft tissue regeneration. The combination of structural integrity, biocompatibility, and tunable bioactivity positions these HA/PVA hydrogels as promising materials for wound healing and tissue engineering applications.