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<p>Tissue engineering scaffolds must simultaneously provide mechanical support and a bioactive microenvironment that promotes cell attachment and proliferation. Polycaprolactone (PCL) is widely used for melt-extrusion 3D printing, but its hydrophobic and bio-inert surface limits cell–scaffold interactions. In this study, carbon dots (CDs) were synthesized from Nigella sativa (black seed) via a one-step hydrothermal method and incorporated into PCL at 0, 0.1, 0.5, 1, and 2 wt% through melt blending to fabricate 3D-printed scaffolds. CD incorporation induced concentration-dependent changes in scaffold morphology, including increased strand diameter (≈ 200–400&#xa0;μm), reduced macropore size (≈ 250–150&#xa0;μm), and the formation of microporosity (≈ 7–20&#xa0;μm). Increasing CD loading increased surface roughness (Ra up to ≈ 8&#xa0;μm) and improved wettability, reducing the water contact angle from ~80° (pure PCL) to ~45° (2 wt% CDs). Thermal analysis indicated minimal mass loss at low CD concentrations within the processing temperature range. Mechanical testing demonstrated a trade-off between structural integrity and bioactivity, with the 2 wt% formulation showing an approximately threefold reduction in compressive strength compared to pure PCL. In vitro assays using adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells (AD-MSCs) indicated a concentration-dependent enhancement in metabolic activity and adhesion, with the highest cell density observed on 2 wt% CD scaffolds. Overall, these results demonstrate that CD concentration is an effective design parameter for tuning PCL scaffold architecture and cell response, enabling application-oriented optimization between formulations with relatively higher mechanical strength and those with enhanced bioactivity.</p> Graphical Abstract <p></p>

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The Effects of Green-Synthesized Carbon Dots on the Mechanical and Biological Properties of 3D-Printed PCL Scaffolds for Tailored Tissue Regeneration

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2026年5月23日

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  • Fatemeh Massah,
  • Mahdi Rahaie,
  • Elaheh Esmaeili,
  • Ali Hossein Rezayan

摘要

Tissue engineering scaffolds must simultaneously provide mechanical support and a bioactive microenvironment that promotes cell attachment and proliferation. Polycaprolactone (PCL) is widely used for melt-extrusion 3D printing, but its hydrophobic and bio-inert surface limits cell–scaffold interactions. In this study, carbon dots (CDs) were synthesized from Nigella sativa (black seed) via a one-step hydrothermal method and incorporated into PCL at 0, 0.1, 0.5, 1, and 2 wt% through melt blending to fabricate 3D-printed scaffolds. CD incorporation induced concentration-dependent changes in scaffold morphology, including increased strand diameter (≈ 200–400 μm), reduced macropore size (≈ 250–150 μm), and the formation of microporosity (≈ 7–20 μm). Increasing CD loading increased surface roughness (Ra up to ≈ 8 μm) and improved wettability, reducing the water contact angle from ~80° (pure PCL) to ~45° (2 wt% CDs). Thermal analysis indicated minimal mass loss at low CD concentrations within the processing temperature range. Mechanical testing demonstrated a trade-off between structural integrity and bioactivity, with the 2 wt% formulation showing an approximately threefold reduction in compressive strength compared to pure PCL. In vitro assays using adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells (AD-MSCs) indicated a concentration-dependent enhancement in metabolic activity and adhesion, with the highest cell density observed on 2 wt% CD scaffolds. Overall, these results demonstrate that CD concentration is an effective design parameter for tuning PCL scaffold architecture and cell response, enabling application-oriented optimization between formulations with relatively higher mechanical strength and those with enhanced bioactivity.

Graphical Abstract