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<p>Biopolymeric 3D-printed scaffolds promote cell adhesion, proliferation, and differentiation for tissue regeneration. This study addresses the mechanical limitations of natural polymers and enhances interfacial bonding and bioactivity by fabricating polycaprolactone-lignin (PCL-Lig) copolymer scaffolds via ring-opening copolymerization, achieving a 71% yield. FTIR spectroscopy confirmed ether bond formation (1070–1150&#xa0;cm⁻¹), and ¹H NMR spectra exhibited peaks at 3.85 ppm and 6.85 ppm corresponding to lignin and caprolactone units. Thermal analysis revealed a melting temperature of 59&#xa0;°C and a glass transition temperature of −20&#xa0;°C, indicating suitability for printing. Scaffolds printed using a 0.3&#xa0;mm nozzle at 57&#xa0;°C and 0.1–0.15&#xa0;MPa, optimized via the Taguchi design, exhibited a compressive modulus of 98.00&#xa0;MPa and a compressive strength of 9.89&#xa0;MPa at failure. These values correspond to an increase of 13.3% in modulus and 15.7% in strength compared with pure PCL scaffolds, meeting the mechanical requirements for bone scaffolds. SEM analysis revealed uniform fibrous morphology with pore sizes of 219–236&#xa0;μm, favorable for cell infiltration. Fibroblast assays also demonstrated excellent biocompatibility with cell viability of 114% and 105% at 24&#xa0;h and 72&#xa0;h, respectively. Immunocytochemistry indicated 13.65% and 9.9% increases in ALP and RUNX2 expression, respectively, compared with pure PCL scaffolds. Quantitative RT-PCR further confirmed an 81.25% increase in RUNX2 expression and the highest observed increases in ALP (75.69%), OCN (42.38%), and COL1A1 (34.86%) in MG-63 cells. These findings establish PCL-Lig scaffolds as promising candidates for bone tissue engineering.</p> Graphical Abstract <p></p>

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Synthesis, Fabrication, Characterization and Biological Evaluation of 3D-Printed PCL–Lignin Copolymer Scaffold for Tissue Engineering

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2026年4月27日

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  • Shayan Hosseini,
  • Mahdieh Ranjbar-jamalabadi,
  • Tayebeh Behzad,
  • Mohammad Dinari,
  • Mohammad Mohammadalipour

摘要

Biopolymeric 3D-printed scaffolds promote cell adhesion, proliferation, and differentiation for tissue regeneration. This study addresses the mechanical limitations of natural polymers and enhances interfacial bonding and bioactivity by fabricating polycaprolactone-lignin (PCL-Lig) copolymer scaffolds via ring-opening copolymerization, achieving a 71% yield. FTIR spectroscopy confirmed ether bond formation (1070–1150 cm⁻¹), and ¹H NMR spectra exhibited peaks at 3.85 ppm and 6.85 ppm corresponding to lignin and caprolactone units. Thermal analysis revealed a melting temperature of 59 °C and a glass transition temperature of −20 °C, indicating suitability for printing. Scaffolds printed using a 0.3 mm nozzle at 57 °C and 0.1–0.15 MPa, optimized via the Taguchi design, exhibited a compressive modulus of 98.00 MPa and a compressive strength of 9.89 MPa at failure. These values correspond to an increase of 13.3% in modulus and 15.7% in strength compared with pure PCL scaffolds, meeting the mechanical requirements for bone scaffolds. SEM analysis revealed uniform fibrous morphology with pore sizes of 219–236 μm, favorable for cell infiltration. Fibroblast assays also demonstrated excellent biocompatibility with cell viability of 114% and 105% at 24 h and 72 h, respectively. Immunocytochemistry indicated 13.65% and 9.9% increases in ALP and RUNX2 expression, respectively, compared with pure PCL scaffolds. Quantitative RT-PCR further confirmed an 81.25% increase in RUNX2 expression and the highest observed increases in ALP (75.69%), OCN (42.38%), and COL1A1 (34.86%) in MG-63 cells. These findings establish PCL-Lig scaffolds as promising candidates for bone tissue engineering.

Graphical Abstract