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<p>The demand for safer, more sustainable alternatives to lithium-ion batteries has led to growing interest in aqueous metal-free batteries, which eliminate flammable electrolytes and reliance on scarce, toxic metals. This study explores two fully metal-free ammonium-ion batteries using perylenetetracarboxylic dianhydride (PTCDA) as the organic anode, paired with either polyaniline (PANI) or polypyrrole (PPy) as the organic cathode. Aqueous (NH₄)₂SO₄ electrolytes (1–3&#xa0;m), free of metal ions, are employed. NH₄⁺ ions, with a low molar mass (18&#xa0;g mol⁻¹) and small hydration radius (~ 3.31 Å), faciliate high ionic mobility and fast diffusion, enabling excellent rate capability. A series of tests including cyclic voltammetry, impedance spectroscopy, and galvanostatic cycling reveal that the PTCDA/PANI cell with the 3&#xa0;m electrolyte delivers 113.23&#xa0;mA h g⁻¹ at 0.1&#xa0;A g⁻¹ and retains 91.98% capacity after 100 cycles. The PTCDA/PPy cell achieves 83.12&#xa0;mA h g⁻¹ with 92.43% retention. A higher electrolyte concentration improves ion transport and reduces charge-transfer resistance. Upon high-rate cycling, the PTCDA/PANI and PTCDA/PPy cells recover 95.03% and 96.78% of their original capacities, respectively. The optimized totally metal-free batteries also demonstrate high potential for practical applications as sustainable lightweight energy storage, by powering a digital thermometer and LED bulbs.</p> Graphical Abstract <p></p>

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A totally metal-free battery using organic electrodes in an aqueous electrolyte

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2026年1月14日

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  • Abhishek Paudel,
  • Ajalynn N. Crum,
  • Maria T. Gutierrez-Wing,
  • Ying Wang

摘要

The demand for safer, more sustainable alternatives to lithium-ion batteries has led to growing interest in aqueous metal-free batteries, which eliminate flammable electrolytes and reliance on scarce, toxic metals. This study explores two fully metal-free ammonium-ion batteries using perylenetetracarboxylic dianhydride (PTCDA) as the organic anode, paired with either polyaniline (PANI) or polypyrrole (PPy) as the organic cathode. Aqueous (NH₄)₂SO₄ electrolytes (1–3 m), free of metal ions, are employed. NH₄⁺ ions, with a low molar mass (18 g mol⁻¹) and small hydration radius (~ 3.31 Å), faciliate high ionic mobility and fast diffusion, enabling excellent rate capability. A series of tests including cyclic voltammetry, impedance spectroscopy, and galvanostatic cycling reveal that the PTCDA/PANI cell with the 3 m electrolyte delivers 113.23 mA h g⁻¹ at 0.1 A g⁻¹ and retains 91.98% capacity after 100 cycles. The PTCDA/PPy cell achieves 83.12 mA h g⁻¹ with 92.43% retention. A higher electrolyte concentration improves ion transport and reduces charge-transfer resistance. Upon high-rate cycling, the PTCDA/PANI and PTCDA/PPy cells recover 95.03% and 96.78% of their original capacities, respectively. The optimized totally metal-free batteries also demonstrate high potential for practical applications as sustainable lightweight energy storage, by powering a digital thermometer and LED bulbs.

Graphical Abstract