A spatially explicit model of European colonization timing on the American ecosystems based on foundation dates of cities

Based on the foundation dates of cities, we developed a spatial model of European colonization timing for the Americas, a major social-ecological event in its environmental history. Colonization occurred gradually during the past 500 years, but with two main “waves”, an early one prior to 1600, and a late one during the nineteenth century, following countries´ independence. Early-colonized areas include the Caribbean, Mexico-Mesoamerica, the Tropical Andes and adjacent Pacific coasts, and the Brazilian Atlantic coast. Recently colonized areas include the inner Amazonian region, Patagonia and high latitude North America. By combining the spatial model with a map of ecoregions and current human population, we identified areas with different combinations of colonization history and present-day human impact. Our approach provides a new perspective on the social-ecological history of the Americas, and we briefly discuss the consequences of this for ecology of the Anthropocene, and for conservation policies in the new world.