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<p>Differential settlement frequently occurs during the operation of immersed-tube tunnels constructed on clayey foundations. This phenomenon is of particular concern because it can cause cracking and leakage of tube segments, thereby posing significant risks to operational safety. Mechanistically, such deformation mainly arises from changes in the properties of undisturbed underwater soil induced by construction activities and from the pronounced time–space characteristics of soil deformation. To address these coupled effects, a rate-dependent elastic–viscoplastic (EVP) constitutive model for clay under K<sub>0</sub> consolidation was developed and implemented in FLAC3D via a user-defined interface. The model formulation was calibrated using triaxial test data to ensure accurate parameterization under relevant loading conditions. It was then applied to simulate the settlement of an operating immersed tube tunnel, and the numerical predictions were systematically validated based on years of field monitoring data. These simulation results clearly indicate that the proposed model can accurately reproduce both early-stage deformation caused by construction disturbance and the long-term creep behavior of clay. Moreover, the settlement evolution is well captured, yielding an average long-term rate of about 0.0013&#xa0;mm/d (for the stable phase after 2013) and showing a clear trend toward stabilization, with the early post-construction rate (2010–2013) being 0.0045&#xa0;mm/d. Consequently, this study provides a robust and practical numerical tool for evaluating the long-term deformation of immersed tube tunnels in soft ground. The findings also offer a theoretical basis for optimizing tunnel design and guiding maintenance strategies, ultimately enhancing the long-term safety and serviceability of immersed-tube tunnel infrastructure.</p>

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Elastic–Viscoplastic Modeling and FLAC3D Implementation for Long-Term Settlement of Immersed Tunnels under K0 Consolidation

  • 期刊论文

  • 发表日期：

    2025年11月19日

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  • Hongkang Zhu,
  • Lei Kou,
  • Quan Cheng,
  • Jingyang Li,
  • Jingxi Zhang

摘要

Differential settlement frequently occurs during the operation of immersed-tube tunnels constructed on clayey foundations. This phenomenon is of particular concern because it can cause cracking and leakage of tube segments, thereby posing significant risks to operational safety. Mechanistically, such deformation mainly arises from changes in the properties of undisturbed underwater soil induced by construction activities and from the pronounced time–space characteristics of soil deformation. To address these coupled effects, a rate-dependent elastic–viscoplastic (EVP) constitutive model for clay under K0 consolidation was developed and implemented in FLAC3D via a user-defined interface. The model formulation was calibrated using triaxial test data to ensure accurate parameterization under relevant loading conditions. It was then applied to simulate the settlement of an operating immersed tube tunnel, and the numerical predictions were systematically validated based on years of field monitoring data. These simulation results clearly indicate that the proposed model can accurately reproduce both early-stage deformation caused by construction disturbance and the long-term creep behavior of clay. Moreover, the settlement evolution is well captured, yielding an average long-term rate of about 0.0013 mm/d (for the stable phase after 2013) and showing a clear trend toward stabilization, with the early post-construction rate (2010–2013) being 0.0045 mm/d. Consequently, this study provides a robust and practical numerical tool for evaluating the long-term deformation of immersed tube tunnels in soft ground. The findings also offer a theoretical basis for optimizing tunnel design and guiding maintenance strategies, ultimately enhancing the long-term safety and serviceability of immersed-tube tunnel infrastructure.